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BMAT > Biology > Flashcards

Biology Flashcards

1
Q

What is a cell’s genome?

A

The complete set of genes in a cell

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2
Q

What is a cell’s proteome?

A

The full range of proteins produced by the cell

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3
Q

What are alleles?

A

Different forms of genes

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4
Q

What are genes?

A

Sections of DNA that code for polypeptides

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5
Q

What is special about embryonic stem cells?

A

They can differentiate and give rise to any cell type

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6
Q

What happens to a cell’s ability to form other cells?

A

It loses this ability as the cell matures

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7
Q

Describe natural selection:

A

Overproduction of offspring
More are produced that the environment can support
Variation exists / (random) mutations give rise to variation
Some varieties better adapted than others
Best adapted reproduce and pass on characteristics
So the new generation has these characters too
This leads to changes in the population as a whole

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8
Q

Give an example of natural selection

A

Bacterial resistance

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9
Q

What are the two varieties of variation?

A

Genetic or environmental

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10
Q

When will a species become extinct?

A

When they can’t adapt quickly enough to changes

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11
Q

What are enzymes?

A

Biological catalysts

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12
Q

What is the definition of an enzyme?

A

Proteins that alter the rate of reaction without being affected themselves

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13
Q

Define respiration

A

Produces co2, h2o and ATP

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14
Q

What is the word equation for aerobic respiration?

A

Glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water

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15
Q

What is the word equation for anaerobic respiration in animals?

A

Pyruvate + reduced NAD -> lactate + oxidised NAD

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16
Q

Why is anaerobic respiration in animals important?

A

NAD from glycolysis must be removed - pyruvate gains two hydrogen atoms to form lactate

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17
Q

What are the male chromosomes?

A

XY

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18
Q

What are the female chromosomes?

A

XX

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19
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

Maintaining a constant internal environment

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20
Q

What is negative feedback?

A

The stimulus causes the corrective measures to be turned off to maintain optimum conditions

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21
Q

How is temperature regulated?

A

Hypothalamus detects a rise in temperature - this causes vasodilation, sweating and lowering of body hairs

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22
Q

How is blood glucose regulated?

A

Alpha cells in the islets of Langerhans detect a fall in blood glucose concentration and release glucagon
Beta cells in the islets of Langerhans detect a rise in blood glucose concentration and release insulin

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23
Q

Describe the process of denitrification

A

Anaerobic bacteria convert soil nitrates into nitrogen gas

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24
Q

Describe the process of nitrogen fixation

A

Nitrogen gas is converted to ammonia

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25
Q

Describe the process of decay

A

Saprobionts break down nitrogenous compounds into ammonia compounds

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26
Q

Describe the process of nitrification

A

Ammonia is oxidised into nitrite

Nitrite is oxidised into nitrate

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27
Q

What are mycorrhizae?

A

They form a mutualistic relationship with plants

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28
Q

Describe the process of phagocytosis

A

The phagocyte moves towards the pathogen by following chemical secretions
The phagocyte attaches to the pathogen
Lysosomes in the phagocyte engulf the pathogen
Lysozymes hydrolyse the pathogen
The hydrolysis products are absorbed the phagocyte

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29
Q

How do hormones reach their targets?

A

In the blood

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30
Q

How is water content regulated?

A

The hypothalamus of the brain detects a fall in water potential
The anti-diuretic hormone is released and travels to the kidneys, which allows more water to be absorbed

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31
Q

How do white blood cells produce antibodies?

A

B cells present foreign antigens on their surfaces
Helper T cells activate the B cell
The B cell divides by mitosis
This produces plasma cells, that secrete antibodies, and memory cells

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32
Q

Describe the process of combustion

A

The material is burnt in excess oxygen to produce water and carbon dioxide

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33
Q

What is the equation for combustion

A

Material + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water

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34
Q

How does decay contribute to the carbon cycle?

A

Microorganisms break down dead or decaying matter and release CO2 through respiration

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35
Q

How does respiration contribute to the carbon cycle?

A

Acetyl CoA combines with a 4C compound to produce a 6C compound
This 6C compound releases one CO2 molecule and hydrogen atoms to form a 5C compound
These hydrogen atoms are used to form reduced NAD
The 5C compound has another molecule of CO2 removed to form a 4C compound
This time, one molecule of reduced FAD, one molecule of ATP, and two molecules of reduced NAD are produced
The 4C compound combines with the CoA to repeat the cycle again

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36
Q

What are the four processes in the carbon cycle?

A

Respiration, photosynthesis, decomposition, combustion

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37
Q

What role does photosynthesis play in the carbon cycle?

A

CO2 diffuses into the leaf through the stomata and then into the stroma
Here, the CO2 combines with RuBP in a reaction catalysed by rubisco. This forms an unstable 6 carbon compound which quickly breaks down into two molecules of GP
The hydrolysis of ATP provides every and reduced NADP provides H+ ions to tun this GP into TP
The NADP goes back to the light-dependent reaction to accept more protons
Some TP is turned into glucose and the rest continues to regenerate RuBP

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38
Q

Where is amylase produced?

A

The salivary glands and pancreas

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39
Q

What does amylase do?

A

Breaks down carbohydrates into sugars

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40
Q

Where is lipase produced?

A

Pancreas and small intestine

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41
Q

What does lipase do?

A

Breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol

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42
Q

Where is protease produced?

A

Stomach, pancreas and small intestine

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43
Q

What does protease do?

A

Breaks down proteins into amino acids

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44
Q

What does the process of genetic modification include?

A

Taking a copy of a gene from one organism and inserting it into the DNA of another organism

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45
Q

What is monohybrid inheritance?

A

Inheriting a single gene

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46
Q

What is the central nervous system comprised of?

A

The brain and the spinal cord

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47
Q

Function of sensory neurons

A

Transmit an impulse from a receptor to a motor neurone

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48
Q

Structure of the sensory neuron

A

One long dendron that carries the impulse towards the cell body and one long axon to carry it away

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49
Q

Function of motor neurons

A

Transmit impulses from a relay neuron to an effector

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50
Q

Structure of the motor neuron

A

A long axon and many short dendrites

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51
Q

Function of the relay neuron

A

Transmit impulses between neurons

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52
Q

Description of cell body

A

Contains all the normal cellular organelles

53
Q

Function of cell body

A

Produces neurotransmitters and proteins

54
Q

Description of dendrons

A

Extensions which sub divide into dendrites

55
Q

Function of dendrons

A

Carry nerve impulses towards the cell body

56
Q

Description of Schwann cells

A

Surround the axon and providing electrical insulation

57
Q

Function of Schwann cells

A

Carry out phagocytosis

58
Q

Description of the myelin sheath

A

Is made of the membranes of Schwann cells and covers the axon

59
Q

What are myelinated neurones?

A

Those with a myelin sheath

60
Q

What are the nodes of Ranvier?

A

Constrictions between Schwann cells where there is no myelin sheath

61
Q

Describe the reflex arc

A 
R - receptor
S - sensory neuron 
R - relay neuron 
M - motor neuron 
E - effector
62
Q

Describe the structure of a synapse

A

The presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitters from vesicles, which diffuse across the gap to postsynaptic neurones

63
Q

Function of a synapse

A

Transmit information between neurones

64
Q

What effects can drugs have on synapses?

A

They inhibit the nervous system by creating fewer action potentials in the postsynaptic neurons, either by inhibiting the release of a neurotransmitter or by blocking receptors on the potassium/sodium channels on the postsynaptic nerve

65
Q

Function of an ECG

A

Monitors heart rhythm and electrical activity

66
Q

What do the different blood types mean?

A

The blood cells have different antigens

67
Q

What is the SAN?

A

An area of muscle in the right atrium which results in contraction

68
Q

What is the AVN?

A

Picks up the electrical signal and passes it to the bottom of the ventricles

69
Q

How do the kidneys contribute to homeostasis?

A

Maintain a constant blood water potential

70
Q

Function of the fibrous capsule

A

A protective outer membrane

71
Q

What is the cortex of the kidney?

A

An outer region made of Bowman’s capsules

72
Q

What is the medulla of the kidney?

A

An inner region made of loops of Henle

73
Q

Function of ureter

A

A tube carrying urine to the bladder

74
Q

Function of renal artery

A

Supplies the kidney with blood

75
Q

Function of renal vein

A

Returns blood to the heart

76
Q

Description of Bowman’s capsule

A

Contains the blood capillaries known as the glomerulus

77
Q

Description of the proximal and distal convoluted tubules

A

Loops surrounded by capillaries

78
Q

Description of the loop of henle

A

A hairpin loop that extends from the cortex to the medulla

79
Q

What is the genome?

A

The entire genetic material of an organism

80
Q

How many strands form DNA?

A

2

81
Q

Shape of DNA?

A

A double helix

82
Q

What does adenine pair with?

A

Thymine

83
Q

What does guanine pair with?

A

Cytosine

84
Q

What does each triplet code for?

A

An amino acid

85
Q

How is the genetic code read?

A

In triplets

86
Q

What is a mutation?

A

A change in DNA

87
Q

What impact will most mutations have on the phenotype?

A

No effect

88
Q

Function of adult stem cells

A

Produce the cells of a particular tissue or organ to maintain them throughout the organism’s life

89
Q

Function of embryonic stem cells

A

Differentiate into various cell types during development

90
Q

Benefits of stem cells

A

Could save many lives and improve those of others

91
Q

Disadvantages of stem cells

A

Ethical dilemmas

Could divide too much to form tumours

92
Q

What do restriction enzymes do?

A

They cut the DNA base sequence at a specific sequence of bases called a recognition sequence

93
Q

What is the role of ligases?

A

They catalyse the formation of a phosphodiester bond between two sticky ends

94
Q

Impacts of selective breeding on animals

A

The gene pool is reduced, producing organisms more prone to rare genetic conditions as a result of inbreeding

95
Q

Benefits of genetic engineering

A

Gene therapy to treat diseases

96
Q

Disadvantages of genetic engineering

A

Reduced diversity, ‘designer babies’

97
Q

How does speciation occur?

A

Populations are isolated by a barrier
Conditions on either side of the barrier will be different
Each population shows genetic variation
Different alleles will be successful (different natural selection)
These organisms will be successful and pass on these alleles
Different characteristics will become more common

98
Q

What is antibacterial resistance an example of?

A

Evolution through natural selection

99
Q

How do bacteria become resistant?

A

They develop a mutation which allows them to survive, breed and pass on the resistant allele, leading to a whole species becoming resistant

100
Q

What are the four components making up the blood?

A

WBCs, RBCs, plasma, platelets

101
Q

What does blood plasma do?

A

Transports blood components and other dissolved substances

102
Q

Why is the water cycle so important?

A

It ensures that there is always water available for living organisms, where otherwise there may not be

103
Q

What is type 1 diabetes?

A

The body becomes unable to produce insulin, normally occurs in childhood

104
Q

How is type 1 diabetes treated?

A

Insulin injections

105
Q

What is type 2 diabetes?

A

Glycoprotein receptors lose their responsiveness to insulin, normally occurs as a result of lifestyle choices

106
Q

What is important to remember about diseases like cardiovascular disease, cancer and type 2 diabetes?

A

They are caused by the interaction of many factors

107
Q

How can cardiovascular disease be managed?

A

Statins, anti-coagulants, stents, bypass, lifestyle changes

108
Q

How are new drugs developed?

A 
Drug discovery
Preclinical trials
First clinical trial
Second clinical trial
Third clinical trial
109
Q

When are human volunteers used in drug testing?

A

During clinical trials

110
Q

What are communicable diseases caused by?

A

Pathogens, viruses, protists and fungi

111
Q

What impact does thyroxine have on the body?

A

Controls metabolism

112
Q

How is thyroxine an example of negative feedback?

A

If the levels of thyroxine begin to fall, it is detected by sensors in the brain and more TSH is released
TSH stimulates the production of thyroxine by the pituitary gland

113
Q

What impact does adrenaline have on the body?

A

Increases heart and breathing rate so more oxygen is circulated to cells in preparation for fight or flight

114
Q

What role does FSH have in the menstrual cycle?

A

Causes the egg to mature, stimulates the ovary to make oestrogen

115
Q

What role does LH have in the menstrual cycle?

A

Ovulation

116
Q

What role does oestrogen have in the menstrual cycle?

A

Inhibits FSH, stimulates LH

117
Q

What role does progesterone have on the body?

A

Inhibits FSH and LH, maintains womb lining

118
Q

Which hormones are in the combined pill?

A

Oestrogen and progesterone- inhibits FSH release so no egg matures

119
Q

What is peristasis?

A

The contraction of the muscles in the stomach to bring about movement

120
Q

What is digestion?

A

Breaking down large, insoluble pieces of food into smaller, soluble pieces

121
Q

What is absorption?

A

Absorbing the soluble products of digestion into the blood stream

122
Q

What is egestion?

A

Excreting the waste products

123
Q

What happens when you look at a bright light?

A

Circular muscles contract
Radial muscles relax
Pupil constricts

124
Q

What happens hen there is little light?

A

Circular muscles relax
Radial muscles contract
Pupil dilates

125
Q

What happens when you are focussing on a object that is far away?

A

The lens is less convex
Ciliary muscles relax
Suspensory ligaments contract

126
Q

What happens when you are looking at a near object?

A

Ciliary muscles contract
Suspensory ligaments relax
Lens is more convex

127
Q

Which side of the heart pumps blood to the body?

A

Left

128
Q

Characteristics of recessive X-linked conditions

A

Carried by females

Appears in males

129
Q

Characteristics of dominant X-linked conditions

A

Fathers will only pass to daughters

Mothers can pass to either sons or daughters

BMAT (3 decks)

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