Biology Flashcards
1
Q
What type of Filament is Actin Composed of
A
Microfilament
2
Q
What does Histone Acetylase do
A
Unpacks the heterochromatin allowing it to be transcribed
3
Q
What does Histone Deacetylase do?
A
Repacks the chromatin turning it into Heterchromatin
4
Q
What does DNA Methylase do?
A
It methylates the Adenosine and Cytosine which in turns silences the DNA.
5
Q
Gap Junctions
A
for cell to cell communication and allow solutes to pass through.
6
Q
Tight Junctions
A
Do not let water or solutes pass in between cells most commonly found in epithelial cells.
7
Q
Desmosomes
A
Bind cells using their exoskeleton
8
Q
What is the postprandial State?
A
It is the state your in after eating, instead of wanting to break down molecules your body will be building them up.
9
Q
What does insulin make Adipose tissue do?
A
It makes adipose tissue turn the fatty acids released by liver and muscle tissue into triacylglycerides.
10
Q
What does Cortisol do?
A
Increases blood glucose levels.
11
Q
What does Thyroid Hormone do?
A
Thyroid hormone increases consumption of glucose by the small intestine. It also INCREASES METABOLIC RATE.
12
Q
What Energy source does the brain always use
A
GLUCOSE (Ketones in prolonged fast)
13
Q
What do enzymes change in a reaction?
A
Lower ACTIVATION ENERGY by making it easier to obtain the transition state.
14
Q
What effects the activity of enzymes?
A
Temperature, PH, and salinity.
15
Q
What is Vmax and what is the only way to increase it?
A
Vmax is when all enzymes are bound to substrates. The only way to increase is by adding more enzyme.
16
Q
What is Km in enzyme kinetics?
A
Km is the substrate concentration at which half of the enzymes are full. So it is another measure for electron affinity, the lower the Km the higher the affinity, the Higher the Km the lower the affinity.
17
Q
What do competitive inhibitors do the the linweaver burkplot?
A
They only higher the Km value which is seen as 1/S on the graph.
18
Q
What do noncompetitive inhibitors do to the linweaver burk plot?
A
They decrease the value of Vmax, which in turn looks like an increase on the y-axis in the graph since the y-axis represents 1/V which is the inverse of Vmax.
19
Q
Non-competitive inhibitors
A
Bind to the allosteric site of the enzyme thus inducing a conformational change, which no amount of substrate can overcome.
20
Q
Competitive inhibitors
A
Do not bind to allosteric site, can be overcome by raising substrate concentration.
21
Q
What is Mutorotation?
A
The rotation experienced on the anomeric carbon when the OH group goes from down to up or from up to down.
22
Q
Benedicts and Tollens reagent test positive for what?
A
Reducing sugars.
23
Q
What is the only non-reducing disacharide
A
Sucrose
24
Q
GLU 2
Where is it found?
High or Low Km
A
GLU2 is found in hepatocytes (liver) and pancreatic cells.
Has a high Km (low affinity) works alongside insulin.
25
GLU 4 where is it found?
| High or Low Km?
Found in Adipose and Muscle Cells
Has a low Km (High affinity) so will pick up glucose even at low quantities so by the time you have a glucose rich meal they are already filled up.
26
What is the Rate limiting step of Glycolysis?
Phosphofructokinase-1 PFK-1.
27
What are the enzymes of the irreversible steps?
PFK-1, Hexokinase and Pyruvate kinase.
28
What is the main purpose of Fermentation
Lactate dehydrogenase: oxidizes NADH to NAD+ This is very important because under anaerobic conditions the body cant make NAD+ to continue glycolysis. So lactate Dehydrogenase converts PYRUVATE into Lactate which produces NAD+ Along side it.
29
Exercise cause what type of shift in the oxygen-hemoglobin curve?
Right Shift bc exercise is the Right thing to do. Because this means it will take a higher partial pressure of 02 in blood for hemoglobin to be saturated which means its O2 affinity is low giving the O2 to the muscles.
30
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase
Converts Pyruvate into Acetyl-COA to go into the citric acid cycle.
31
Purpose of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway or otherwise known as the Hexose Monophopshate Shunt
Production of NADPH and serving as a source of ribose-5-phosphate for nucleotide synthesis.
NADPH also reduces harm of superoxidized ions!!!!!!!
Glutathione: is a reducing agent which helps reduce the damage on radical formations.
32
How many cyclic rings do steroids have?
4 cyclic rings
33
Dizygotic twins
Two eggs released and fertilized in one ovulatory cycle, by two different sperms. Each zygote will develop its own placenta, amnion, and chorion. Fraternal twins are no more genetically similar than any other siblings.
34
Monozygotic twins
orm when a single zygote splits into two. Because the genetic material is identical, the genomes of the offspring will be too.
If division is incomplete, conjoined twins may result.
35
Ectoderm
"attracto" the attractive aspect gives rise to the integument, including the epidermis, hair nails and the epithelia of the nose, mouth and lower anal canal. The lens of the eye nervous system and inner ear are in the ectoderm.
36
Mesoderm:
"means" like the means of getting around develops into all the systems such as the musculoskeltal, circulatory, and most excretory systems.
37
Endoderm:
forms the epithelial linings of the digestive and respiratory tracts and other tracts.
38
Teratogens
are substances that interfere with development causing defects or even death of the developing embryo.
39
An inefficiency of folic acid is related to
can result in anencephaly which is when a part of the skull is missing.
40
Totipotent:
can differentiate into any cell type.
41
Pluripotent:
form any cell except those found in placental structures.
42
Multipotent:
mutliple types of cells within a particular group.
43
Autocrine signals
Acts on the same cell secreted in the first place. The cell releases a hormone that causes a change within it.
44
Paracrine Signals
: signals act on cells in the local area.
45
Juxtacrine signals
involve direct stimulating by adjacent cell.
46
Endocrine Signal:
involve secreted hormones in the bloodstream.
47
The first trimester
the organs begin to develop embryo becomes known as the fetus.
48
The second trimester:
fetus undergoes tremendous amount of growth.
49
The third trimester:
antibiodies are given at a higher rate here to prep the kid for life outside the womb.
50
What are centrioles made of?
Microtubulules
51
Intermediate Filaments
are a diverse group of filamentous protein which are involved in cell to cell adhesion or maintenance of the cytoskeleton.
52
Facultative anaerobes:
they can switch from anaerobic to aerobic best suited ones for survival!!!
53
Aerotolerant anaerobe
unable to use oxygen for metabolism, but they are also not harmed by its presence in the environment.
54
Obligate aerobes
bacteria which need oxygen
55
Obligate anaerobes
they cannot be in the presence of oxygen otherwise they would die.
56
Since bacteria do not have Mitochondria, where is there ETC located?
On the inner cell membrane.
57
Positive Sense Virus
Inserts single strand of DNA already capable of being translated into Protein
58
Negative Sense Strand
Inserts RNA strand that needs to be turned into its complementary Strand by RNA REPLICASE which then is turned into a protein.
59
Retrovirus
Inject RNA into host which then with Reverse transcriptase turns it into DNA and incorporates it into the genome which is why this is the worse virus , bc cell has to kill itself to get rid of it. EX: HIV
60
Recombination frequency
when the recombination frequency is low that means the genes are linked and they are very close together. When it is close to 50 that means they are far apart and not linked.
61
What does the Seminal Vesicle and Prostate gland do?
Nourishes the sperm gives it an alkaline fluid so it can survive in the females acidic reproductive tract.
62
What is the function of the Epididymus?
Storage of the Sperm until ejaculation.
63
Function of the Seminiferous tubule?
Production of sperm
64
In the Pregnancy phase once fertilized what does the zygote release that acts as an analogue of LH keeping progesterone and estrogen levels high?
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
65
What part of the Neuron receives incoming signals
Dendrites
66
What do epynimal cells do?
Line the brain and produce CSF serves as brain protectant.
67
Microglia
Ingest and breakdown waste products from the CNS.
68
What part of the neuron accumulates the incoming signals
Axon Hillock
69
Refractory period
he period after a part of the neuron becomes hyperpolarized and is not effected by any incoming signals.
70
Absolute refractory period:
No amount of incoming signal will affect the neuron part of the axon.
71
Relative refractory period:
there must be greater than normal stimulation to cause an action potential.
72
Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine
have slower onset but longer duration. They regulate metabolic rate.
73
What hormones are released by the Hypothalamus?
GnRH
Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone
Thyroid Releasing Hormone
Corticotropin releasing hormone
74
What hormones does the Anterior Pituitary Release
FSH, LH
Growth Hormone
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
75
What hormones does the Posterior Pituitary Release
ADH and Oxytocin
76
Functions of the Thyroid?
Setting metabolic rate and setting calcium homeostasis
77
What Hormones does the thyroid release and their functions?
Calcitonin: decreases calcium levels and promotes bone formation.
T3 and T4: increase cellular respiration.
78
Symptoms of hyperthyroidism
increased heart rate and weight loss.
79
What does the parathyroid gland do?
Releases parathyroid hormone which increases blood calcium levels.
80
What does the Adrenal Cortex secrete
Glucocorticoids: cortisol and cortisone
Mineralcorticoids: Aldosterone
Coritcal Sex hormone
81
Function of Cortisol
Under Stressful conditions, raises bodies glucose levels
82
Cortisone
Raises blood glucose
83
Aldosterone
increases sodium reabsorption which raises BP.
84
What does the Adrenal Medulla release
epinephrine and norepinephrine
85
Pineal Gland
Releases Melatonin which helps you sleep
86
What is Acidemia and how does your body regulate it?
Acidemia is when there is too many H+ in the body and your blood ph is acidic. So you begin to BREATHE FASTER in order to release CO2 in order for the equation to shift left.
87
What is Alkalemia and how do you fix it?
When body is too basic so you slow breathing to accumulate CO2 in order to shift equation to the right.
88
Founder effect or bottlenecks
is the loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population is established by a very small number of individuals from a larger population. Since the population is small inbreeding may occur reducing genetic diversity. This may cause reduced fitness (Inbreeding depression)
89
Outbreeding or outcrossing
introducing new individuals into the population which results in increased variation. And fitness.
90
Stabilizing selection:
keeps phenotypes within a range by selecting against extremes.
91
Directional Selection
choosing one type of extreme ex: only small beaks
92
Disruptive selection:
TWO extreme phenotypes are selected over the norm.
| This idea includes polymorphism which is naturally occurring differences in between members of the same population.
93
Divergent evolution
same ancestor just adapted to their different environments.
94
Parallel evolution
related species evolve in similar ways due to similar environments.
95
Convergent evolution
species evolve to resemble each other they're from different ancestors but same environment .
96
Where does RBC destruction occur
Spleen and Liver
97
Lymph nodes
provide a place for immune cells to communicate and mount an attack.
98
Interferons
proteins that prevent viral replication and dispersion. They cause nearby cells to decrease production of viral and cellular proteins. Also decrease permeability of the cells making it harder for the virus to get in. They Upregulate MHC 1 and 2 allowing for better detection of infection. They are the cause of the flu like symptoms. Part of the innate immune system.
99
What bonds hold together the chain of an Antibody
Disulfide Linkages and non-covalent interactions.
100
What is the Antigen Binding region of an antibody called
V-domain
101
Equation for Cardiac Output
Heart Rate x Stroke Volume
102
Equation for Cardiac Pressure
cardiac output x total peripheral resistance.
103
Function of Renin
promotes release of Aldosterone
104
What does the Value of Kd mean?
This is the dissociation constant value, the smaller it is the higher affinity an enzyme has for its substrate.
105
Are peptide hormones soluble in the blood?
Yes peptide hormones are hydrophilic and soluble in the blood.
106
Are steroid Hormones soluble in the blood?
No, steroid hormones are hydrophobic and require transport proteins in order to move through the blood.
107
When reducing an SDS- page field what type of bond is broken?
Disulfide bond
108
What do Competitive Inhibitors do?
Increase Km
109
What do non-competitive inhibitors do?
Decrease Vmax
110
What do uncompetitive inhibitors do?
Decrease both Vmax and Km, so in other words they do not change the Km/Vmax ratio. (Slope) of the Linweaver Burke Plot.
111
Uncompetitive Inhibitors only bind to what?
Enzyme-Substrate complex.
112
What is myoglobin and where is it found?
Myoglobin transports oxygen and is the oxygen transporter for muscles and organs.
113
Functions of the brain stem?
breathing, swallowing, heart rate, blood pressure, consciousness,
114
Proteins primarily consist of what structures?
primary, secondary, and tertiary
115
A sigmoidal curve is indicative of what process?
A cooperative process.
116
Charge on NH3 and the name of this compound?
neutral and it is called Ammonia
117
What is the coordination number
The number of atoms bound to one atom.
118
Solids are not included in what type of expressions?
Equilibrium Expressions
119
What do macrophages bind to after ingesting foreign material?
They bind to the lysozyme in order to form the phagolysozome.
120
Does Phosphofructokinase-1 undergo allosteric inhibition or competitive inhibition?
PFK-1 undergoes allosteric inhibition.
121
What is ubiquination?
Ubiquination is when a protein is targeted and broken down by a proteasome.
122
Postranslational modifications such as acetylation are detected by which technique?
Western Blot
123
Vasopressin regulates the insertion of aquaporins into the apical membranes of the epithelial cells of which renal structure?
Collecting duct
124
Blood from the small intestine is first transported to which organ?
The liver.
125
What are proteases?
Enzymes which digest proteins.
126
Under Anaerobic conditions how many moles of ATP are produced per mole glucose?
2 moles of ATP per mole glucose under anaerobic conditions.
127
How many molecules of ATP would 5 moles of glucose make?
Since 5 mole glucose makes 10 mol ATP and since there are 6x10^23 molecules of ATP per mole it would then be 6x10^24.
128
Myosin is classified as what type of protein?
Motor protein
129
Where do Microtubules originate from?
Centrosomes
130
What is a centrosome?
A centrosome is where tubular and microtubules and microfilaments ORIGINATE.
131
Where in the male reproductive system does sperm become mobile and maturate?
Epididymis
132
The fovea of the eye is directly involved with what?
Color sensation, because it has a high number of cones.
133
Which type of drug is the least addictive? (This is a psych problem but whatever just know it)
Hallucinogens
134
The more fluorescent a compound is, this means it is more?
Conjugated, the more conjugated something is the higher wavelength it will have and higher wavelength means lower energy, lower energy= more fluorescent.
135
What bond links monosaccharides together?
Glycosidic Bonds
136
What bonds link the backbone of DNA together?
Phosphodiester bonds
137
What bonds link Amino Acids together?
Peptide bonds
