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BMAT > Biology > Flashcards

Biology Flashcards

1
Q

what is the cytoplasm ?

A

liquid gel which contains enzymes, where chemical reactions happen

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2
Q

what are mitochondria ?

A

structures where oxygen is used and energy is released during aerobic respiration

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3
Q

what is the function of the permanent vacuole ?

A
  • stores cell sap

- provides rigidity and cell support

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4
Q

what is cell sap ?

A

weak solution of: salt, sugar, mineral ions, waste molecules

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5
Q

how are erythrocytes specialised ?

A
  • haemoglobin
  • biconcave shape
  • anuclear (no nucleus)
  • mature cells have no mitochondria
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6
Q

give advantages of biconcave shape of erythrocytes

A
  • large SA

- can squeeze through capillaries

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7
Q

how are sperm cells specialised ?

A
  • flagellum allows movement
  • head is streamlined
  • head is acrosome (contains digestive enzymes)
  • middle packed with mitochondria
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8
Q

what do egg cells carry ?

A

female DNA and store food to provide energy / building molecules for early stages of developing embryo

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9
Q

what happens to cell membrane of egg once fused with sperm ?

A

strengthens to prevent other sperm from entering

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10
Q

give the total number of human chromosomes

A

46

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11
Q

how is genetic material contained in bacterial cells ?

A

free in cytoplasm (in rings - plasmid)

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12
Q

what is the term for bacteria division ?

A

binary fission

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13
Q

what do bacteria often produce that is harmful ?

A

toxins

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14
Q

give 3 ways in which white blood cells help defend the body

A
  • ingest microorganisms
  • produce antigens
  • produce antitoxins
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15
Q

what are antitoxins ?

A

antibodies that neutralise toxins

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16
Q

how is antibiotic resistance avoided ?

A
  • patients finish course of antibiotics

- medics avoid unnecessarily prescribing

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17
Q

what is the most common example of a ‘super bug’ ?

A

MRSA

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18
Q

what type of pathogen are antibiotics used for ?

A

bacteria

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19
Q

give 4 functions of proteins

A
  • structural components (muscles/tendons)
  • hormones
  • antibodies
  • enzymes
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20
Q

enzymes at high temp are described as …

A

denatured

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21
Q

enzymes at low temp are described as …

A

inactive

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22
Q

what is the optimum temp for most human enzymes ?

A

37 degrees Celsius

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23
Q

what is pepsin and what is its optimum pH?

A

stomach enzyme at a pH of 2 (acidic)

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24
Q

what does changing the pH do to enzymes ?

A

alters intermolecular forces and bonds that holds the enzyme, altering active site shape

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25
Q

where is bile produced ?

A

the liver

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26
Q

what is the function of bile ?

A

neutralises stomach acid and emulsifies fat

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27
Q

how is food broken down in the stomach ?

A
  • mechanical digestion from muscular walls

- HCl produced gives opt. pH for pepsin to work and kills pathogens

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28
Q

function of pancreas (for digestive system)

A

releases enzymes into small intestine

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29
Q

function of large intestine

A

absorbs water and ions

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30
Q

function of small intestine

A

absorbs soluble food molecules

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31
Q

where is bile stored and then released ?

A

gall bladder into small intestine

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32
Q

what is peristalsis ?

A

contraction of gut muscles to move food along

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33
Q

where is amylase produced ?

A

salivary glands / pancreas / small intestine

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34
Q

where are proteases produced ?

A

stomach / pancreas / small intestine

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35
Q

where is lipase produced ?

A

pancreas / small intestine

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36
Q

Describe inspiration (6 steps)

A
  • intercostal muscles contract
  • ribs move up and out
  • diaphragm contracts and flattens
  • thorax vol increases
  • air pressure drops
  • air drawn in
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37
Q

Describe expiration (6 steps)

A
  • intercostal muscles relax
  • ribs move down and in
  • diaphragm relaxes and curves
  • thorax vol decreases
  • air pressure increases
  • air pushed out
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38
Q

give the path of structures air passes from the mouth

A

pharynx - trachea - bronchus - bronchioles - alveoli

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39
Q

how is anaerobic respiration not very efficient?

A
  • glucose only partially broken down

- lactic acid is a byproduct

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40
Q

give the anaerobic respiration equation

A

Glucose — Lactic Acid + energy

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41
Q

give the function of phagocytes

A

engulf and digest microorganisms

42
Q

give the function of T-lymphocytes

A

destroy cells infected with viruses and produce memory cells

43
Q

give the function of B-lymphocytes

A

produce antibodies, antitoxins and memory cells

44
Q

what is coagulation ?

A

blood clotting

45
Q

what is a blood clot made up from ?

A

a mesh of fibrin fibres

46
Q

describe what happens after tissue is damaged

A
  • chemicals released cause platelets to stick together

- platelets release calcium ions and others which trigger clotting reaction

47
Q

what is genetic condition in which blood cannot properly clot ?

A

haemophilia

48
Q

what causes blood groups ?

A

antigens on erythrocytes surface

49
Q

describe the process of a heart beat

A
  • SAN produces electrical current (atria contract)

- current passes through AVN, causing ventricles to contract

50
Q

what does ECG stand for ?

A

electrocardiogram

51
Q

state the function of the kidneys

A

remove urea from blood

adjust water and ion content of the blood

52
Q

what are the filtration units in the kidneys called ?

A

nephrons

53
Q

what is urea ?

A

waste product produced in liver when amino acids converted to fats and carbs

54
Q

describe ultra filtration

A
  • blood arrives at renal artery and enters capillaries in Bowman’s capsule
  • high pressure forces small molecules out of the blood
55
Q

which small molecules are involved with ultra filtration ?

A

urea / water / glucose / amino acids / mineral ions

56
Q

describe reabsorption

A
  • glucose, mineral ions and water are moved back into blood by active transport
57
Q

how much glucose is reabsorbed ? (nephron)

A

all glucose is reabsorbed in the nephron

58
Q

how much water / mineral ions are absorbed ? (nephron)

A

sufficient amounts of each are reabsorbed to maintain balance

59
Q

which molecules are released as waster (kidneys) ?

A

urea / excess ions / water

60
Q

after reabsorption, describe the path to the bladder …

A
  • collecting duct - ureter - bladder
61
Q

what do receptors do ?

A

detect change in environment (stimulus)

62
Q

what is the axon ?

A

long structure made from cytoplasm and cell membrane which transmits impulses

63
Q

what is the axon usually covered by ?

A

fatty sheath (acts as electrical insulator)

64
Q

what is dendrite ?

A

structure at end of axon which communicates with other neurons (forms synapses)

65
Q

what is the function of sensory neuron?

A

receives signals from receptor and carries them as electrical impulses to CNS

66
Q

what is the function of relay neuron?

A

connects sensory and motor neurons within CNS

67
Q

what is the function of motor neuron?

A

sends messages from CNS to effector

68
Q

give the length + no. of dendrites for sensory neuron

A

one long

69
Q

give the length + no. of dendrites for relay neuron

A

many short

70
Q

give the length + no. of dendrites for motor neuron

A

many short

71
Q

give the length + no. of axons for sensory neuron

A

one short

72
Q

give the length + no. of axons for relay neuron

A

many short

73
Q

give the length + no. of axons for motor neuron

A

one long

74
Q

describe how impulses pas between neurons

A
  • neurotransmitter (chemical) released
  • neurotrans. diffuses across gap and attaches to specific receptors
  • new nerve impulse initiated
75
Q

what is a reflex ?

A

quick, automatic response to a stimuli

76
Q

state reflex arc

A

stimulus - receptor - sensory neuron - CNS - motor neuron - effector - response

77
Q

define homeostasis

A

the maintenance of a stable, relatively constant internal environment

78
Q

what part of the brain controls body temp?

A

hypothalamus

79
Q

how does standing up hairs keep body warm ?

A

traps insulating layer of air

80
Q

how much nitrogen in the atm ?

A

78%

81
Q

what is nitrogen fixation ?

A

converting atm nitrogen to nitrates

82
Q

how does nitrogen fixation occur ?

A
  • lightning

- nitrogen fixing bacteria

83
Q

where do nitrogen fixing bacteria live ?

A

root nodules of leguminous plants

84
Q

state the 4 main steps of nitrogen cycle

A
  • nitrogen fixation
  • decomposition
  • nitrification
  • denitrification
85
Q

what is decomposition ?

A

fungi/bacteria break down organic material and convert nitrogen compounds (proteins) into ammonium compounds

86
Q

what is nitrification ?

A

nitrifying bacteria changing ammonia (in ammonium compounds) into nitrites, then nitrates

87
Q

what is denitrification

A

denitrifying bacteria changing nitrates into ammonia and atm nitrogen

88
Q

state the 6 main stages of the Carbon cycle

A
  • photosynthesis
  • respiration
  • feeding
  • combustion
  • decomposition
  • breakdown of waste / dead matter
89
Q

what makes up a DNA nucleotide ?

A

nitrogenous base
deoxyribose sugar
phosphate group

90
Q

what is a gene ?

A

length of DNA on a chromosome which determines a specific characteristic

91
Q

define heterozygous

A

inheriting both recessive and dominant alleles of a gene

92
Q

define homozygous

A

inheriting either two dominant/recessive alleles of a gene

93
Q

what two sex chromosome do males have ?

A

XY

94
Q

what two sex chromosomes do females have ?

A

XX

95
Q

describe how a male if first developed

A

Y chromosome activates production of a protein, which activates testis-forming pathway
Testes produce hormones, leading to other organ formation

96
Q

describe how a female if first developed

A

Protein is not produced, so ovary-forming pathway is activated. Ovaries produce hormone…

97
Q

what is polydactyly ?

A

genetic disorder where baby is born with extra fingers/toes

98
Q

what are the symptoms of Huntington’s disease ?

A

dementia and chorea

symptoms don’t appear until late

99
Q

what is genetic screening ?

A

analysis of a person’s DNA to see the alleles

100
Q

what is the term to describe stem cells ?

A

undifferentiated

101
Q

describe the process of genetic engineering

A
  • cut out gene using restriction enzymes
  • cut open plasmid using same restrict. enz.
  • gene inserted in plasmid (now a vector)
  • join DNA strands with DNA ligase
  • insert vector into organism
102
Q

what is gene therapy ?

A

replacing ‘genetic disease genes’ with healthy genes

BMAT (4 decks)

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