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BIOLOGY Flashcards

1
Q

anion

A

negative ion (atom that gains electrons)

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2
Q

cation

A

positive ion (atom that loses electrons)

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3
Q

Properties of Water

A
  1. water has high specific heat (amt of energy that must be absorbed to increase 1 gram by 1 degree celsius
  2. high heat of vaporization
  3. universal solvent
  4. strong cohesion tension (strong attraction to one another)
    • moving up tree trunks with out energy
    • capillary action (cohesion and adhesion)
    • surface tension
  5. ice floats because its less dense than water
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4
Q

pH

A

pH= -log [H+]

common pH values
stomach = 2
blood = 7.4

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5
Q

Isomers

A

organic compounds that have same molecular formula but different structures

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6
Q

types of isomers

A

structural isomer - differ by arrangement of atoms
cis-trans - differ by spatial arrangement of double bonds
enantiomers - differ by mirror images of each other
(left handed (L) or right handed (D) versions)

ALL AA are left handed

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7
Q

4 major organic compounds

A

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

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8
Q

3 classes of carbs

A

monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides

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9
Q

monosaccharides

A

glucose, fructose, galactose (C6H12O6) – all 3 are isomers of each other

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10
Q

polysaccharides

A

many monosaccharides formed together

cellulose = beta-glucose
starch = alpha glucose
chitin = beta glucose w/nitrogen
glycogen = alpha-glucose with branching
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11
Q

fatty acids

A

exists as saturated or unsaturated (has double bonds)

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12
Q

saturated fats

A

solid at room temperature, linked to heart disease (butter)

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13
Q

unsaturated fats

A

extracted from plants, liquid at room temperature, have at least one double bond

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14
Q

steroids

A

four fused rings

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15
Q

Protein structures

A

primary- linear sequence of AA
secondary - alpha helix or beta pleated sheets (held by H bonds)

tertiary- H bonds, ionic bonding with R groups, hydrophobic interactions, Van der Waals, disulfide bonds between cysteiene AA

quaternary - consists of more than one polypetide chain (i.e. Hb)

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16
Q

-delta G

A

exothermic

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17
Q

+delta G

A

endothermic

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18
Q

catabolism

A

break down of molecules

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19
Q

anabolism

A

build up molecules

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20
Q

induced fit model

A

substrate enters enzyme (tertiary structure) to alter its shape slightly to fit the substrate better

lock and key was abandoned because it falsely implied that the enzyme does not change

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21
Q

theory of endosymbiosis

A

eukaryotic cells emerged from mitochondria and chloroplasts

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22
Q

prokaryotes

A

no membrane bound organelles, circular naked DNA, small ribosomes, anaerobic or aerobic metabolism, no cytoskeleton, mainly unicellular, 1-10 micrometers

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23
Q

eukaryotes

A

membrane bound organelles, DNA wrapped with histone proteins into chromosomes, larger ribosomes, aerobic metabolism, multicellular, 10-100 micrometers

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24
Q

nucleolus

A

rRNA is synthesized, non membrane bound, a tangle of chromatin and unfinished ribosomal products

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25
Q

ribosomes

A

they synthesize proteins–found free in the cytoplasm (proteins used for cell) or bound to the ER (proteins sent out)

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26
Q

peroxisomes

A

contain catalase which converts hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) into water with release of O2 atoms (a product of respiration in the cell

they also detoxify alcohol in liver cells

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27
Q

nucleus

A

contain chromosomes, surrounded by selective nuclear envelope–has pores that transport mRNA

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28
Q

Endoplasmic Reticulum

A

RER - studded with ribosomes and produces proteins to transport out of the cell
SER - assists in synthesizing steroid hormones (sex hormones), stores Ca2_ ions in muscle cells to help with muscle contraction, detoxifies drugs and poisons from the body

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29
Q

Golgi Apparatus

A

lies near nucleus that process and package substances produced in the RER and secrete the substances to other parts of the cell or cell surface for export

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30
Q

Lysosomes

A

sacs of hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes –used for intracellular digestion
used in apoptosis
NOT FOUND IN PLANT CELLS

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31
Q

Mitochondria

A

site of cellular respiration, has outer and inner membrane (called Cristae), contain its own DNA,

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32
Q

vacuoles

A

membrane bound structures used for storage– vesicles derived from ER and golgi apparatus

plant/protist vacuoles have contracting ability to pump water out

food vacuole are formed by phagocytosis of foreign material

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33
Q

Chloroplasts

A

contain green pigment (chlorophyll), absorbs light, synthesizes sugar

contain outer membrane and inner membrane (thylakoids)

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34
Q

cytoskeleton

A

protein filaments that extends throughout the cytoplasm

  • maintain cell shape
  • controls position of organelles
  • controls flow of cytoplasm
  • anchors cell in place by interacting with extracellular environment

contain microtubules and microfilaments

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35
Q

microtubules

A

hollow tubes that make up cilia, flagella, spindle fibers

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36
Q

cilia and flagella

A

made up of 9 pairs of microtubules and 2 singlet microtubules

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37
Q

microfilaments

A

assembled from actin filaments and support shape of cell

animal cells form cleavage furrow during cell division
ameoba to move by sending out pseudopods
skeletal muscle contract as they slide along myosin filaments

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38
Q

MTOCs

A

centrioles, centrosomes, or microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs) – organize spindle fibers for cell division

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39
Q

Cell wall

A

in plant cells, lamella is area between two plant cell walls

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40
Q

pinocytosis

A

cell drinking, the uptake of large dissolved particles– particles are engulfed by plasma membrane

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41
Q

phagocytosis

A

engulfing large particles or small cells by pseudopods

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42
Q

gap junctions

A

direct contact in animal cells

43
Q

plasmodesmata

A

direct contact in plant cells

44
Q

aerobic respiration

A

highly exergonic, releases energy

glycolysis followed by Citric acid cycle (Krebs), ETC and oxidative phosphorylation

45
Q

anaerobic respiration

A

glycolysis followed by alcoholic fermentation or lactic acid fermentation

46
Q

Reduction

A

gain of electrons or hydrogen H+

47
Q

oxidation

A

loss of electrons or protons

48
Q

glycolysis

A

breaks down 1 molecule of glucose into 2 three carbon pyruvate (releases 4 molecules of ATP) – but uses 2 ATP to start the process

occurs in cytoplasm (without Oxygen)

ATP produced by substrate level phosphorylation (direct transfer of phosphate to ADP

*when there is enough ATP, ATP inhibits Phosphofructosekinase (PFK) – enzyme required in glycolysis

49
Q

pyruvate

A

3 carbon molecule that is product of glycolysis but starting point for aerobic respiration (Kreb cycle)

50
Q

mitochondria

A

krebs cycle takes place in matrix

ETC takes place in Cristae

proton concentration builds up in outer compartment

51
Q

Citric Acid cycle

A
  • pyruvate combines with Coenzyme A to form acetyl-CoA
  • this conversion gives us 1 NADH (2 total because two pyruvates)
  • Acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetic acid (OAA) to produce citric acid
  • each turn of the Kreb cycle produces 2 NADH, 1 ATP, 1 FADH, CO2 (total of two turns for two pyruvates)
  • during kreb cycle, ATP is produced by substrate level phosphorylation (direct transfer of phosphate to ADP)
52
Q

NAD+ and FAD (oxidized)

A

NADH and FADH2 (reduced coenzymes) – carry protons and electrons from glycolysis/Kreb cycle to ETC

53
Q

electron transport chain

A

proton pump in mitochondria (located in cristae) that couples exergonic and endergonic reactions

uses energy released from exergonic flow of electrons to pump protons against its gradient from the matrix to the outer compartment

–overall establish proton gradient in mitochondria

final electron acceptor is oxygen (highly electronegative oxygen pulls electrons through the ETC) – forms water as waste product

ETC consists of cytochromes

NADH produces 3 ATPs, FADH2 produces 2 ATPs

54
Q

Oxidative phosphorylation

A

chemiosmotic theory - uses potential energy stored in form of proton H+ gradient to phosphorylate ADP to ATP

proton gradient created between outer compartment and inner matrix

protons can only flow down its gradient thru ATP synthase channels which generate energy to phosphorylate ADP to ATP

55
Q

Facultative anaerobes

A

tolerate oxygen, but don’t have to use it

56
Q

obligate anaerobes

A

can not live in area with oxygen

57
Q

alcohol fermentation

A

cell converts pyruvate to ethyl alcohol and CO2 (in the process oxidizing NADH to NAD+) – this is required for glycolysis to accept electrons/protons to continue living

58
Q

Lactic Acid fermentation

A

pyruvate from glycolysis is reduced to form lactic acid or lactate (which also oxidizes NADH to NAD+)

lactic acid is converted back to pyruvate in the liver (in muscle cells)

59
Q

Light-dependent reaction

A

use light energy directly to produce ATP that powers the light independent reaction

60
Q

Light-independent reaction

A

consists of Calvin cycle to produce sugar

Calvin cycle uses ATP from light reactions to power production of sugar

61
Q

Two major pigments found in plants

A

cholorphylls and carotenoids

62
Q

Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b

A

both are green and absorbs all wavelengths of red, blue, and violet

63
Q

Caretenoids

A

are yellow, orange, red – and absorb light in blue, green, violet

64
Q

Xanthophyll

A

another plant pigment– like a caretenoid with slight chemical variation

65
Q

Phycobilins

A

found in red algae. red color and absorb blue and green

66
Q

Chlorophyll b and cartenoids

A

“antennae pigments- capture other wavelength of lights different from chlorophyll a” – absorb photons of light and pass the energy along to chlorophyll a, which is directly involved in transforming light energy to sugar

67
Q

mitosis

A

produces two genetically identical daughter cells

consists of PMAT
prophase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase
68
Q

Meiosis

A

sexual reproducing organisms that results in cells the are haploid (half the # of chromosomes of the parent cell (n))

69
Q

sister chromatids

A

two exact copies of each other

70
Q

centromere

A

specialized region that holds two chromatids together

71
Q

kinectochore

A

disc-shaped protein on the centromere that attaches the chromatid to the mitotic spindle during cell division

72
Q

two factors that limit cell division

A

1) ratio of volume of cell to surface area
- SA increases at square of radius
- Volume increases at cube of radius
- volume increases faster and nutrients is based on transport of the SA cell membrane (determinant in when cell divides)

2) capacity of the nucleus to control entire cell

73
Q

Phases of Cell cycle

A

G1, S, G2 (G1,S,G2 all make up interphase), mitosis, cytokinesis

74
Q

interphase composed of?

A

G1,S,G2 (90% of cell life is spent in this phase)

at G2-M transition, a single centrosome is duplicated and separated to opposite poles for cell division

(plants lack centrosomes–but have MTOCs) microtubule organizing centers

75
Q

G1

A

period of intense growth/biochemical acitivity

76
Q

G2

A

cell continues to grow and complete preparations for cell division

77
Q

Prophase

A

nuclear membrane dissolves
chromosomes condense (no longer thread-like)
nucleolus disappears
in cytoplasm, mitotic spindle begins to form, connecting one centrosome to the other

78
Q

Metaphase

A

CHROMOSOMES LINE UP on metaphase plate
centrosomes at opposite poles
spindle fibers connect centromere to kinetochore to centromere

79
Q

centrioles, centrosomes, centromeres

A

Centrosomes: These are the organizing centers for the microtubules that appear in prophase and then move to the polar ends of the cell.

Centromeres: The part of the chromosome where the DNA is wound tighter than the other DNA giving an indention look to it. It is also a great way of counting chromosomes.

Centrioles: These are found near the centrosomes, usually at right angles, that act in microtubule formation.

Kinetochore: These lie on the centrosomes of the chromosomes and is where the mitotic spindle connects to.

Mitotic Spindles: These are macromolecular machines that pull chromosomes apart during anaphase.

80
Q

Anaphase

A

centromeres of each chromosome separate as spindle fibers pull apart sister chromatids

81
Q

Telophase

A

nuclear membrane reforms as chromosomes cluster at opposite poles

condensed chromosomes unravel

mitosis complete after two nucleoli form

82
Q

Cytokinesis

A

dividing of the cytoplasm – occurs during anaphase

animal cells form “cleavage furrow” - when actin/myosin filaments pinch in the cytoplasm

in plants, cell plates form during telophase– cells do not separate, but a new cell wall forms and a sticky “middle lamella” connects the walls.

83
Q

Contact inhibition (density dependent inhibition)

A

when cells divide to a point when it is too crowded and cells stop growing (inhibited at G zero) state

84
Q

Anchorage dependence

A

cell must be attached/anchored to something to divide

cancer cells have no inhibition– grows uncontrollably

85
Q

Meiosis

A

produces gametes (ova and sperm)

contain haploid or monoploid chromosome number (n)

undergo division of nucleus twice

86
Q

sexual reproduction

A

formation of two gametes (haploids) to form diploid again (2n)

87
Q

Meiosis I

A

aka reduction division

- homologous chromosomes separate
Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I
88
Q

Prophase I

A

Synapsis - paring of homologues (homologous chromosomes)
Crossing-over - exchange of homologous bits
Chiasmata - visible crossing over

89
Q

metaphase I

A

pairs of homologues lined up in DOUBLE FILE (tetrads)

spindle fibers attach to centromeres

90
Q

Anaphase I

A

Separation of homologue chromosomes and pulled by spindle fibers and migrated to opposite poles

91
Q

Telophase I

A

each pole has haploid number of chromosomes

92
Q

Cytokinesis I

A

occurs with telophase I

93
Q

Meiosis II

A 
like mitosis
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II
94
Q

genetic variations of meiosis

A

independent assortment of chromosomes

crossing-over

random fertilization of ovum by sperm

95
Q

Independent assortment of chromosomes

A

homologous pairs of chromosomes separate randomly at metaphase plate during metaphase I (2^23 combinations)

96
Q

Cross-over

A

produce recombinant chromosomes that combine genes inherited from both parents

97
Q

Random fertilization

A

one human ovum represents 8 million possible chromosome combinations

8 million x 8 million combos

98
Q

Check points in cell cycle

A

Restriction Point (R) - G1 check point (most important) or arrested in G0 phase

G2 and M checkpoints

99
Q

Mendel’s First Law

A

Law of Dominance - states that two organisms, each homozygous for two opposing traits are crossed. The offspring will be hybrid but exhibit only one dominant trait

hidden train = recessive trait

100
Q

Law of segregation

A

two traits carried by the parent separate (Tt) to T and t

101
Q

Law of Independent Assortment

A

dihybrid cross produce 9:3:3:1

102
Q

Pleiotropy

A

one gene to affect an organism in several ways (i.e. cystic fibrosis

103
Q

epistasis

A

two separate genes control one trait, but one genes masks the expression of the other gene

DAT (2 decks)

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