Biology Flashcards

Question

In eukaryotes, oxidative phoxphorylation occurs in the mitochondrion. The analogous structure used by bacteria to carry out oxidative phosphorylation is the \_\_\_.

Answer 1

Plasma membrane ## Footnote Inner membrane of a mitochondrion is analogous to the plasma membrane of a prokaryote. The enzymes for oxidative phosphorylation are embedded in the inner membrane.

Answer 2

Mitochondria are descendents of prokaryotes that were engulfed by endocytosis into a vesicle lined with a membrane derived from the cell membrane of the eukaryote host. This is the outer membrane. The inner membrane of the mitochondrion is the plasma membrane of the endosymbiotic prokaryote.

Answer 3

The nucleus. Uridine is found in RNA, but not DNA. Uridine is incorporated into RNA in the nucleus where transcription of DNA into RNA takes place. RNA is manufactured in the nucleus from a DNA template.

Answer 4

* Kidney (JGA cells) release renin * triggers formation of angiotensin II * stimulates aldosterone release * Raises blood presssure

Answer 5

* Aldosterone (mineralocorticoid) released by adrenal glands * Causes distal tubules in kidney to reabsorb more Na+ * Causes more water reabsorption * Increase BP

Answer 6

* Made in hypothalamus, stored in pituitary * Causes more water reabsorption in kidney tubules * Raises BP * Also causes vasoconstriction

Answer 7

* Atrial natriuretic peptide * Antagonizes aldosterone * Causes kidney to excrete more NaP and water * Causes vasodilation * Helps lower BP

Answer 8

Na+ and Cl- (Inside cells is mainly K+ and Hydrogen phosphate ions)

Answer 9

* causes reabsorption of Na+ * Secretion of K+ * Increase blood osmolarity

Answer 10

* Parathyroid hormone * Regulates calcium and phosphate * more Ca²⁺ reabsorption in kidney tubules

Answer 11

* bicarbonate buffer system (blood and extracellular fluid) * CO₂ + H₂O ↔ H₂CO₃ ↔ H⁺ + HCO₃^- * Breathing out CO₂ decreases acidity of blood * Reabsorption of bicarbonate (HCO₃^-) makes blood more basic * Phosphate buffer system (inside cells)

Answer 12

* Urine (concentrated urea in water, with some salt) * Urea (harmless form of ammonia, nitrogenous waste) * Amino acids → Ammonia → Urea → peed out

Answer 13

* Outer = **cortex** (contains convoluted tubules) * Inner = **medulla** (contains loop of henle) * Functional unit = Nephron

Answer 14

* Glomerulus * Bowman's capsule * Proximal tubule * Loop of Henle * Distal tubule * Collecting duct (shared by multiple nephrons)

Answer 15

* ball of fenestrated capillaries * Urea + anything small in blood filters through

Answer 16

The cup/capsule that surrounds the glomerulus

Answer 17

* Convoluted tubule on the side of the bowman's capsule * Major site for reabsorption (all nutrient, most salts, water) and secretion of waste (except K+)

Answer 18

* U shaped loop that dips into the renal medulla * Countercurrent multiplier mechanism occurs here * Descending limb: H₂O reabsorption by osmosis (not salt permeable) * Bottom of U: most concentrated * Ascending limb: salt reabsorption (not H₂O permeable)

Answer 19

* Convoluted tubule on the side of the collecting duct * Hormone-controlled * Reabsorption of salts and water * Aldosterone-controlled secretion of K+ * PTH causes reabsorption of Ca²⁺

Answer 20

* The distal tubules of many nephrons drain here * ADH-controlled reabsorption of water * Hormone-controlled reabsorption/secretion of salts * Concentrates urine using the osmotic gradient established by the Loop of Henle

Answer 21

* Powered by hydrostatic pressure * Both good and bad stuff pass through * Good: nutrients * Bad: urea (creatinine and uric acid too)

Answer 22

* PCT: reabsorbs nutrients and ions * Loop of Henle: reabsorbs water and salt * DCT: selectively reabsorbs/secretes based on hormonal control * Collecting duct: reabsorbs water to concentrate urine if ADH is present * regulate bloo dpH

Answer 23

Concentrated by the collecting duct. * Loop of henle has high osmolarity at the bottom, which pulls water out of urine

Answer 24

* Creates an osmotic gradient down the loop of Henle, used by the collecting duct to concentrate urine * NaCl pump on ascending limb creates this gradient * Countercurrent: * Descending limb: water flows out of filtrate * Ascending limb: salt flows out of filtrate * Multiplier: * Gradient-producing power of each NaCl pump multiplies down the length of the looop of Henle

Answer 25

Urea at the bottom of collecting duct leaks out into interstitial fluid and back into the filtrate. Contributes to high osmolarity at the bottom of the loop of henle

Answer 26

* Collecting ducts drain into ureter * Ureters drain into bladder * Bladder stores urine * special epithelium can squish to accomodate large amounts of urine * Urine peed out through urethra

Answer 27

* Enzymes are catalysts (increase rate of rxn, does not get used up) * Biological Reactions: * metabolism * DNA and RNA synthess * Protein synthesis * Digestion

Answer 28

* Decrease the activation energy (Ea) of a reaction by lowering the energy of the transition state * increase rate constant k (rate = k[A][B]) * Do not change K_eq

Answer 29

Kinematics

Answer 30

* Protein (most common) * RNA (ex. ribosome)

Answer 31

* Primary: sequence of protein or RNA * Secondary: H-bonding in backbone * Tertiary: 3-D structure (-R group interactions) * Quaternary: more than 1 chain involved (dimers, trimers, tetramers, oligomers)

Answer 32

heat or extreme pH (alter structure)

Answer 33

* Product of a pathway inhibits the pathway * ex. hexokinase (first enz in glycolysis) is inhibited by its product glucose-6-phosphate

Answer 34

* Inhibitor competes with substrate for binding to active site * Increase amt of substrate needed for maximum rate * Doesn't change maximum rate * Can be overcome by providing more substrate

Answer 35

* Inhibitor binds to an allosteric site on the enzyme to deactivate it * Substrate can stilla ccess active site, but enzyme can no longer catalyze * Decreases the maximum rate * Doesn't change amount of substrate to achieve maximum rate * Can't be overcome by adding more substrate

Answer 36

* Catabolism (breaking down stuff for energy) * Anabolism (using energy to build stuff for storage) * Also called "cellular respiration"

Answer 37

Needs O₂ * Glycolysis * Oxidative decarboxylation * Krebs cycle * Electron transport chain

Answer 38

Don't need O₂ * Glycolysis * Alcohol or lactic acid fermentation

Answer 39

* 36 ATP produced per glucose * C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O * CO₂ produced by Krebs cycle * H₂O produced by electron txp chain * Glucose components end up as CO₂ * O₂ breathed in ends up as water * Metabolite (glucose) is completely oxidized * Energy is released when electrons pass from glucose to molecular O₂ (ETC harnesses this energy)

Answer 40

* Partial oxidation of metabolite (glucose) to pyruvate * 2 ATP per glucose * Pyruvate reduced to alcohol or lactate * Bacteria reduce pyruvate to alcohol in alcohol fermentation * Humans reduce pyruvate to lactate in lactic acid fermentation

Answer 41

* Bacteria: reduce pyruvate to alcohol in alcohol fermentation * Humans: reduce pyruvate to lactate in lactic acid fermentation

Answer 42

* Converts glucose (6C) to 2 pyruvates (3C) * Location: cytosol * 2 net ATP for every glucose (2 input, 4 output) * Occurs in aerobic and anaerobic conditions * Inhibited by ATP

Answer 43

* pyruvate (3C) → acetyl group (2C) * 1 NADH made for every pyruvate * Only w/ oxygen * Acetyl group attaches to Coenzyme A to make acetyl CoA * Location: mitochondrial matrix

Answer 44

* Redox rxn: reduce pyruvate, oxidize NADH * 1 NAD+ made : 1 pyruvate used * Alcohol fermentation: pyruvate reduced to ethanol * Lactic acid fermentation: pyruvate reduced to lactate * Location: cytosol * Purpose: regenerate NAD+ (needed for glycolysis)

Answer 45

* Location: mitochondrial matrix * For 1 acetyl CoA input: * 3 NADH made * 1 FADH₂ made * 1 ATP (GTP) made * Coenzyme A regenerated * Other names: Krebs cycle, TCA, tricarboxylic acid cycle, citric acid cycle * Inhibited by: ATP and NADH

Answer 46

* Location: cristae (inner mitochondrial membrane) * Input NADH * Proton gradient * ETC: redox reactions * NADH oxidized to NAD+, O₂ reduced to H₂O * Electrons pass from NADH to FMN to Coenzyme Q, iron sulfur complexes, and cytochromes (cytochrome b, c, and aa₃) before reducing oxygen * NADH is highest in energy, O₂ is lowest * Energy is released * Proton gradient is generated- drives ATP synthase to make ATP (oxidative phosphorylation)

Answer 47

* Energy released from passing electrons down the ETC is used to pump protons in intermembrane space of mitochondria * H+ concentration- establishes proton gradient * H+ wants to migrate down the proton gradient (from intermembrane space back into matrix) but can only do this by going through the ATP synthase * ATP synthase harnesses the energy of falling protons to convert ADP to ATP

Answer 48

Certain antibiotics, cyanide, azide, carbon monoxide

Answer 49

* Beta-oxidation occurs in matrix of mitochondria * Ester hydrolysis in the cytosol * Fatty esters gets hydrolyzed into free fatty acids by **lipases** * w/ ATP, fatty acid is activated by CoA (into a thioester) * Beta-oxidation breaks down the fatty-CoA to make acetyl CoA * also makes FADH₂ and NADH * Acetyl CoA feeds into the Krebs cycle * FADH₂ and NADH feed into the ETC

Answer 50

* Proteins broken down into amino acids by peptidases * N in the amino acid is converted to urea * or uric acid in desert animals, birds, and reptiles * C in amino acid is converted to pyruvate or acetyl-CoA (or other intermediates) * C products from amino acid metabolisms can either feed into the kreb cycle or be starting material for gluconeogenesis

Answer 51

DNA strands are antiparallel (one goes from 5'-3', the other goes from 3'-5')

Answer 52

Purine/Pyrimidine Base, sugar, phosphate

Answer 53

* Nucleotide = Base (Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, Cytosine) + sugar + phosphate * Nucleoside = base + sugar

Answer 54

* Purines (A, G) - 2 rings * Pyrimidines (T, C) - 1 ring

Answer 55

Phosphate group

Answer 56

* A + T (2 bonds) * G + C (3 bonds)

Answer 57

5'-GCAT-3' or 3'-TACG-5'

Answer 58

1. Double stranded DNA separates/unwinds * DNA gyrase uncoils DNA ahead of replication fork * Helicase unwinds DNA at replication fork * Single-strand binding protein (SSB) keeps DNA unwound 2. Make complementary DNA from 5' to 3' * Primase lays down RNA primer * DNA polymerase makes complementary DNA * DNA synth occurs on both strands * leading strand- proceeds in direction of replication fork * lagging strand- proceeds in opposite direction of replication fork (contains okazaki fragments) 3. RNA primers are replaced with DNA by a special DNA polymerase * DNA polymerase has proof-reading activity * Replication occurs during S phase

Answer 59

leading: occurs in diretion of replication fork lagging: occurs in direction opposite to replication fork (contains Okazaki fragments)

Answer 60

* Heavy DNA is old DNA, light DNA is used for synthesis of new DNA * After 1 round of replication- all intermediate weight * After 2 rounds- both heavy and light DNA seen

Answer 61

* Proofreading = 3'-5' exonuclease activity * polymerase backs up and replaces w/ correct nucleotide * 5'-3' activity allows polymerase to clear away short stretches of incorrect nucleotides

Answer 62

Enzymes recognize incorrectly paired base-pairs and cuts out the stretch of DNA containing the mismatch. The polymerase re-ads the correct nucleotides in. * cuts out DNA w/o methylations (new DNA)

Answer 63

Damaged base gets cut out, base's sugar phosphate backbone gets cut out, a few nucleotides next to base get cut out. Polymerase remakes the cut out nucleotides

Answer 64

damaged nucleotides get cut out and then polymerase replaces it. * like mismatch repair, but not for a mismatch * For damages like thymine dimers

Answer 65

* 5' → 3' exonuclease activity coupled to polymerase activity * Polymerase chews off the bad nucleotides and then replaces them with new nucleotides

Answer 66

* Too much DNA damage for normal repair to handle * Polymerase replicates over damaged DNA as if it were normal * Template error rates are high, but better than not replicating at all

Answer 67

* Restriction enzymes (restriction endonucleases) * Cut ds DNA at palindrome DNA sequences * Some make sticky ends, which can hybridize * Some make blunt ends, which can't hybridize

Answer 68

* aka annealing * DNA strands base pair with each other * Southern blotting- DNA probes are used to hybridize onto DNA fragments containing a target sequence

Answer 69

1. Cut gene and plasmid w/ same restriction enzyme 2. Hybridize, then seal DNA in plasmid w/ DNA ligase 3. Insert recombinant plasmid into bacteri 4. Replicate inside bacteria

Answer 70

1. Denaturation: heat (90°C) to separate double stranded DNA template. 2. Annealing: cool for primers to anneal to the now single stranded DNA template 3. Elongation: use heat stable polymerase to extend the primers 4. Repeat steps 1 to 3 for n cycles. This will amplify the original DNA template by 2ⁿ

Answer 71

1. DNA- in the nucleus 2. Transcription- inside the nucleus (DNA transcribed into mRNA) 3. RNA- mRNAs get transported out of nucleus into cytoplasm 4. Translation- ribosomes read off mRNAs to make proteins 5. Proteins- synthesized by ribosomes

Answer 72

* mRNA sequence of nucleotides that codes for amino acids * 3 nucleotides : 1 amino acid * Degenerate: more than 1 codons code for a given amino acid

Answer 73

3 bases on the tip of the tRNA

Answer 74

* Missense codon: mutated codon that results in a different AA * Nonsense codon: mutated codon that results in something other than an AA (ex. stop codon)

Answer 75

* Start: **AUG** signals the start of transpation * Stop: **UAG, UGA, UAA** signals the end of translation

Answer 76

* "messenger" RNA * Product of transcription and template for translation * 5' cap protects 5' end from exonuclease degradation * polyA tail protects the 3' end of the mRNA from exonuclease degradation * Eukaryotic: 5' cap - nucleotides - 3' poly A * Prokaryotic: don't have 5' cap or polyA tail

Answer 77

* Responsible for bringing in the correct amino acid during translation * The 3' end of the tRNA attaches the amino acid via an ester linkage * Clover leaf structure with anticodon at the tip, and the AA at the 3' tail

Answer 78

* Makes up ribosome * made of nucleotides * Highly structured * Contains active site for catalysis * Catalyzes peptide bond formation

Answer 79

1. Chain initiation- RNA polymerase binds to promoter (TATA box) of the ds DNA. dsDNA opens up 2. Chain elongation- nucleoside triphosphates (AUGCs) adds corresponding to the DNA template. no primer is required. RNA elongates 3. Chain termination 1. Intrinsic termination- specific sequences called termination sites create a stem-look structure on the RNA that causes the RNA to slip off the template 2. Rho dependent termination- a protein called the rho factor travels along the RNA and bumps off the polymerase

Answer 80

* Proteins that bind to enhancers or silencers (DNA) to affect transcription * Enhancers increase transcription when bound by TF * Silencers decrease transcription when bound

Answer 81

* Groups of genes whose transcription can be regulated by binding of either repressors or inducers onto the stretch of DNA on the operon called the operator

Answer 82

* Co-repressor binds to target- the resulting complex becomes wither an active repressor or an inactive inducer * Co-inducer binds to a target to become an active inducer or an inactive repressor

Answer 83

* works in the trp (tryptophan) operon * When tryptophan is scarse, transcription occurs normally * If there is excess tryptophan, transcription terminates prematurely

Answer 84

* mRNA contains codons that code for the peptide * tRNA contains the anticodon, and amino acid on the "tail" * rRNA forms the ribosome, catalyzes the formation of the peptide bond

Answer 85

* Enzyme that catalyzes protein synthesis * Large and small subunit * Large subunit- peptidyl transfer reaction * Small subunit- recognizing mRNA and binds to Shine-Dalgarno sequence on mRNA

Answer 86

from N to C | (mRNA codons are read from 5' to 3')

Answer 87

1. **Initiation**- form initiation complex, includes mRNA, initiator tRNA, tibosome. The initiation complex forms around the start codon (AUG), which is downstream of the Shine-Dalgarno sequence (Kozak for eukaryotes) 2. **Chain elongation**- protein made from N to C terminus 1. Binding: new tRNA enters A site, GTP and elongation factor required 2. Peptidyl transfer: attachment of new amino acid tot eh existing chain in the P site 3. Translocation: long tRNA in the P site gets kicked off (E site), and the tRNA in the A site, moves into the P site. A site is now empty and ready for the binding of a new aminoacyl-tRNA to a new start codon. 3. **Chain Termination**- when a stop codon is encountered, protons called release factors, bound to GTP, come in and block the A site. peptide chain is cleaved from tRNA in the P site. Peptide chain calls off.

Answer 88

1. histones- responsible for compact packing and winding of chromosomal DNA. DNA winds itself around histone octamers 2. All other non-histone proteins

Answer 89

2 ends of the chromosome

Answer 90

* Region on the chromosome, can be at the center or close to one of the ends. * After replication sister chromatids are attached at the centromere. * During mitosis spindle fibers are attached at the centromere and pulls the sister chromatids apart

Answer 91

Chromatin is the "stuff" chromosomes are made of

Answer 92

* Eukaryotes: can be far away from promoter, can be upstream or downstream

Answer 93

* Cancer cells continue to grow and divide * fail to respond to cellular controls and signals that halt growth in normal cells * They avoid apoptosis * Stimulate angiogenesis (new glood vessels to nourish cancer cells) * Cancer cells are immortal * Can mestastasize- break off then grow in another location

Answer 94

* Genes that cause cancer when activated * Before activation, it is a harmless proto-oncogene * Classic example is the src

Answer 95

* Products slow down or control cell division * Classic example is p53

Answer 96

* RNA splicing- introns are cut out, exons are kept and spliced together * Alternate splicing- differnet ways of cutting up RNA and rejoining the exons * 5' capping and 3' poly-A tail (protect RNA from degradation)

Answer 97

Stretch of DNA that codes for a trait. The gene codes for a protein, which acts to bring about a trait.

Answer 98

Location of a gene on a chromosome

Answer 99

* only expressed if both copies are present

Answer 100

For alleles A and B, the type AB makes both A and B antigens

Answer 101

For alleles A and B, the genotype AB produces a phenotype in between A and B (black chicken + white chicken = grey chicken)

Answer 102

Gene flow from one species to another

Answer 103

The frequency that a genotype will result in the phenotype

Answer 104

To what degree a penetrant gene is expressed (Constant expressivity means that if your genes for being smart manages to penetrate, then your IQ is 120. Variable expressivity emans that your IQ may be somewhat lower or somewhat higher)

Answer 105

**Meiosis** * Tetrad formation and cross over * Daughter cells different from parent * Haploid (n) daughter cells * 2 divisions * 4 sperm or 1 egg (w/ polar bodies) **Mitosis** * No tetrad * Daughter cells identical to parent cell * Diploid (2n) daughter cells * 1 division involved * 2 daughter cells

Answer 106

1. Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I 2. Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telphase II

Answer 107

* Generates genetic variation * Shuffles chromosomes from mom and dad, and places only 1 copy of each into the gamete * Occurs in metaphase I, when homologous chromosomes pair up along the metaphase line (some of moms on left, some randomly on right, same for dad's)

Answer 108

* Genes are more linked if they are physically closer * When genes are further apart, crossing over makes them less linked

Answer 109

independent assortment and crossing over

Answer 110

* occurs during prophase I * site is the chiasma (possible because of pairing of homologous chromosomes called the tetrad, formed by synapsis) * single crossovers result in genetic recombination * double crossovers- may or may not result in genetic recombination

Answer 111

* Genes for the characteristic is on the X chromosome * very few genes are on the Y chromosome

Answer 112

Inheritance of things other than genomic DNA, such as cellular organelles (ex. mitochondria)

Answer 113

1. Random mutation: random change in DNA sequence 2. Translational error 3. Transcription error 4. Base substitution 5. Inversion: stretch of DNA breaks off, then reattaches in the opposite orientation 6. Addition/Insertion of extra base 7. Deletion of base 8. frameshift mutation- caused by single addition/insertion 9. Translocation: stretch of DNA breaks off ad reattaches somewhere else 10. Mispairing: A not with T, or G not pairing with C

Answer 114

Genetic diseases resulting in faulty metabolism. ex. PKU (Phenylketonuria)- people can't metabolize phenylalanine

Answer 115

* Mutagen causes mutation * Carcinogen causes a mutation that causes cancer * Carcinogens are almost always mutagens * Not all mutagens are carcinogens

Answer 116

p+q=1 p²+2pq+q²=1

Answer 117

1. Infinitely large population (no genetic drift) 2. No mutation 3. No migration 4. Random mating 5. No natural selection

Answer 118

If you have something with dominant phenotype, it could be Aa or AA. To find out, cross with the homozygous recessive aa. If Aa, half the offspring will express recessive phenotype. If AA, no offspring will express the recessive phenotype.

Answer 119

mating between the offspring and the parent = preserve parental genotype

Answer 120

* made of hyphae filaments * parasitic hyphae = haustoria * mass of hyphae = mycelium * cell walls made of chitin * heterotrophs- parasites of saprobes * yeast molds and mushrooms are fungi

Answer 121

* lichens = fungi + algae * algae provides food, fungi provides water and protection * Mycorrhizae = fungi + plant roots * plant provides food, fungi provides more absorption surface area

Answer 122

* can be sexual or asexual * reproduce via spores or mycelial fragmentation * most fungi have a haploid and diploid stage of life cycle

Answer 123

* Nucleic acid (DNA or RNA, ds or ss) * Protein coat covers nucleic acid * Some have envelope from host's cell membrane * smaller than bacteria * lack organelles and nucleus

Answer 124

retroviruses

Answer 125

Viruses are roughly 100x smaller than bacteria, and 1000x smaller than eukaryotic cells.

Answer 126

* No * The host ribosomes make protein coats and polymerases

Answer 127

* Attach to host, penetrate cell membrane/wall, entry of viral genetic material * Use host to replicate viral components (Host provides ATP, amino acids, nucleotides) * Self-assembly and release of new viral particles

Answer 128

* Retrovirus enters the host * Viral reverse transcriptase converts the viral RNA genome into ds DNA * Virally encoded enzyme (integrase) adds in the viral DNA into the host's genome at a random place

Answer 129

Transfer of genetic material by viruses 1. Virus infects cell, host DNA degraded into fragments, viral DNA takes over control 2. Host DNA fragment gets packed into virus progeny by accident 3. Virus progeny infects another cell, injects previous host's DNA fragment 4. Fragment enters cell, find its homologous counterpart, and crossover

Answer 130

No nuclear membrane (instead have an irregular nucleoid) No spindles and asters (cytoskeleton pulls apart replicated DNA) Lack typical eukaryotic organelles

Answer 131

* bacilli (rod) * spirilli (spiral) * cocci (spherical) * eubacteria (encounter every day) * archaea (inhabit extreme environments- high salt, temp, or chemicals)

Answer 132

Bacterial cell wall is made of peptidoglycan. Plant cell wall is made of cellulose Fungi cell wall made of chitin

Answer 133

* flagella made of flagellin * primary mechanism is rotation

Answer 134

* Obligate aerobe- must have oxygen for growth * Obligate anaerobe- dies when oxygen is present * Facultative anaerobe- doesn't need oxygen for growth, but grows better with oxygen

Answer 135

* Parasitic- bacteria benefits at the expense of the host * Mutualistic- both bacteria and host benefits * Commensalistic- one benefits while the other has no effect

Answer 136

Incorporation i nto bacterial genome of DNA fragments from external medium * When bacteria dies, it lyses and spills DNA fragments

Answer 137

**transcription level**

Answer 138

* In prokaryotes, translation occurs as the mRNA is being transcribed (no RNA processing in prokaryotes) * regularion by attenuation can occur for the Trp gene * full of Trp- translation occurs fast * starved of Trp- translation occurs slower

Answer 139

* Site of ATP production: ATP synthase makes ATP from ADP by using proton gradient * Self-replication (has own DNA and ribosomes) * Structure: * inner membrane surrounds matrix * cristae = folds of inner membrane * Intermembrane space between outer and inner membranes * Intermembrane space is high in protons

Answer 140

* vesicles containing hydrolytic enxymes * Digests food, and viral/bacterial particles * Things you want to digest gets into a vacuole by endocytosis or phagocytosis, then the vacuole fuses with the lysosome

Answer 141

* RER: * has ribosomes studded over it * deals with protein synth/folding/modification * SER: * no ribosomes * biosynthesis of lipids and steroids * metabolism of carbs and drugs * stores and regulates calcium

Answer 142

* SER = makes lipids of the plasma membrane * RER = makes transmembrane proteins * carries them on its membrane * forms vesicles and bud off, fuses with the plasma membrane, transmembrane proteins now on plasma membrane

Answer 143

* looks like a stack of pancakes * modifies/secretes macromolecules for the cell * RER makes protein, Golgi modifies it, buds off golgi and secreted out of cell by exocytosis * Golgi can glycosylate proteins as well as modifying existing glycosylations

Answer 144

3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in | (Negative resting potential)

Answer 145

* Gap junctions- connects cells, allows stuff to flow between cells * Tight junctions- glues to cells together, forms an impermeable barrier * Desmosomes- connects 2 cells by linking their cytoskeleton, organized for mechanical strength, not impermeable

Answer 146

microtubule organizing center

Answer 147

Interphase * **G0** (no more replication or division), **G1** (growth), **S** (synthesis, replicate DNA), **G2** (growth) Mitosis * **Prophase **= prepare (condense chromatin, break down nuclear membrane, assemble spindle, centrioles move) * **Metaphase **= middle * **Anaphase **= apart (sister chromatids pull apart) * **Telophase** = prophase in reverse

Answer 148

Programmed cell death clean and healthy No spilling of cell contents Brought on by development or immune response

Answer 149

* Schwann cells = makes myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system * Oligodendrocytes = makes myelin sheath around CNS axons

Answer 150

Exocytosis of vesicles containing neurotransmitters. Triggered by calcium influx when action potential reaches axon terminal.

Answer 151

* Acetylcholine (ACh) * Norepinephrine (NE) * Dopamine * Serotonin * Histamine * ATP

Answer 152

Continuous synaptic activity, depletion of neurotransmitters, fatigue

Answer 153

3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in K+ leaks out Resting potential = -70 mV

Answer 154

1. Resting 2. Depolarization (Na+ channels open, Na rushes inside) 3. Repolarization (K+ channels open, Na+ channels close) 4. Hyperpolarization (K+ channels don't close fast enough, membrane potential drops below resting potential) 5. Refractory period (Na-K pump works to reestablish the original resting state)

Answer 155

* Striated (skeletal muscle, voluntary, stripes, multiple nuclei, shaped like long fibers) * Smooth (visceral, involuntary muscles, no stripes, 1 nucleus per cell, shaped like almonds) * Cardiac (heart muscles, involuntary, has stripes, 1 nucleus/cell, highly branched)

Answer 156

* **Red Muscle** = high endurance, slow * abundant mitochondria * Aerobic respiration predominant * Receive abunant O₂ supply * High endurance, doesn't tire easily * **White muscle** = fast, but fatigue easily * anaerobic resp (glycolysis) predominant * Short bursts of glycolysis- stores high amounts of glycogen * **Pink muscle **= intermediate

Answer 157

* Actin = thin filament (troponin and tropomyosin) * Myosin = thick filament (myosin heads) * Cross bridge = myosin head binds to actin

Answer 158

* Cross bridge forms, myosin head bends (power stroke), causes actin to move in th edirection of power stroke (muscle contracts) * ATP not needed for power stroke, needed for detachment of myosin head to actin * ATP hydrolysis is needed for de-power stroke

Answer 159

No ATP after a person dies, myosin heads can't detach after power stroke, muscle remains in contracted position

Answer 160

* Tropomyosin on actin blocks the myosin head from forming cross bridge * troponin move tropomyosin out of the way at high Ca²⁺ levels * Ca²⁺ binds to troponin, and troponin move tropomyosin

Answer 161

* SR = smooth ER in muscle, stores calcium, releases them in response to AP * "terminal cisternae" where it meets T-tubules at the edge of the sarcomere * T-tubules: extension of the muscle cell membrane that runs deep into the muscle cell, so action potential can reach there

Answer 162

* I band (thin filaments only), H-zone (thick filaments only), A band (thin and thick filaments) * M-line (line of **m**yosin in the **m**iddle) * Z-line (**z**ig**z**ag lines on the sides, connects adjacent sarcomeres)

Answer 163

* Squamous (flat), cuboidal (cube), columnar (column shaped) * **Simple**- single cell layer, for absorption, secretion, filtration, diffusion * Squamous: endothelium, capillary wall, alveolar wall * Cuboidal: gland ducts, kidney tubules * Columnar: stomach and gut * **Stratified**- 2 or more layers, good for protection against abrasion * Squamous: skin * Cuboidal/columnar: not common

Answer 164

Lines the inside of organs and blood fessels (simple squamous epithelium)

Answer 165

* Cells + extracellular matrix * Bone, fat, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, blood * osteoblasts make bone * fibroblasts make fats/tendons/ligaments/beneath epithelia * chondroblasts make cartilage * hematopoietic stem cells make blood

Answer 166

- blast: stem cell actively producing matrix - cyte: mature cell, doing housekeeping

Answer 167

* Collagen- most common, very strong (found in dense connective tissue) * Elastic- can stretch * Reticular fibers- can branch and form nets (connective tissue)

Answer 168

Somatic = controls skeletal muscles Autonomic = sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions = controls involuntary muscles (smooth, cardiac)

Answer 169

* Sympathetic: fight or flight, heat beats faster, pupils dilate, raise blood rpessure, blood to muscles, less blood to gut * Parasympathetic: rest and digest, opposite of sympathetic

Answer 170

parathyroid

Answer 171

Ligament = bone to bone, stabilize joints Tendon = muscle to bone, anchors muscle

Answer 172

**Length** * Osteoblasts- add bone tissue at bone ends * Osteoclasts- remodel bone tissue, change shape **Diameter** * Osteoblasts- add bone tissue to outside of bine * Osteoclasts- remove bone tissue from the inside of bone

Answer 173

1. **Mouth**- mechanical digestion (chewing), chemical (amylase and lipase) 2. **Stomach**- Mechanical (churning), chemical (protease- pepsin) 3. **Small Intestine**- chemicals from pancreas (amylase, protease, lipase, nuclease), Nutrient and water absorption 4. **Large Intestine**- water absorption

Answer 174

Breaks down polysaccharides (starch and glycogen) Found in mouth and small intestine

Answer 175

Squeezing stuff through a tube (esophagus/gut) by smooth muscle

Answer 176

* **Parietal cells** secrete HCl, lower pH * Gastric juice = HCl + pepsin + hormones * Pepsin = protease that works best in acidic environment * Goblet cells secrete mucus lining that protects the stomach from the acid and self-digestion

Answer 177

* Makes bile from cholesterol * Makes and stores glycogen form glucose * gluconeogenesis (from glycerol and amino acids) * Greaks down fats, makes cholesterol) * Stores vitamins (A, D, B12) and iron * metabolizes alcohol, removes ammonia in blood) * Blood glucose regulation

Answer 178

* Too low- gluconeogenesis * Too high- glycogenesis

Answer 179

* Stored in gall bladder * Emulsifying agent, beaks down large fat droplets into smaller droplets by forming micelles * Increases surface area of fat for lipase action

Answer 180

* Makes: amylase (starch), proteases, lipase (fat) ribonuclease (nucleic acid) * Makes HCO₃^- to neutralize the HCl from the stomach * Exocrine- flows into small intestine via duct (to duodenum)

Answer 181

Into lacteals

Answer 182

ferment undigested nutrients, make gas Produce vitamin K (important for clotting)

Answer 183

* Diaphragm contracts, pulls downward, decreases pressure and sucks air into the lungs * Ribs expand, intercostal muscles help

Answer 184

Difference between pressure inside lung (intrapulmonary) and outside lung (intrapleural)

Answer 185

Surface tension causes the lung to collapse Surfactants produced in the alveoli decreases surface tension, and helps alveoli to stay open.

Answer 186

1. Vena cava 2. R atrium 3. tricuspid valve 4. R ventricle 5. pulmonary valve 6. pulmonary artery 7. lung 8. pulmonary vein 9. L atrium 10. Bicuspid (mitral) valve 11. L ventricle 12. Aortic valve 13. Aorta

Answer 187

True: they have valve to prevent back flow of blood

Answer 188

artery \> vein \> arteriole \> venule \> capollaries

Answer 189

Highest in arteries (aorta) Lowest in veins (specifically vena cava)

Answer 190

sealing of clefts by tight junctions

Answer 191

No nucleus- gives it a biconcave shape

Answer 192

RBCs are made from stem cells in bone marrow Spleen destroys aged and damaged RBCs (also done in the liver and bone marrow) Iron is recycled, heme is excreted as bilirubin in feces, protein (globin) is broken down

Answer 193

ADH increases water reabsorption in the kidney Aldosterone increases salt reabsorption, leads to increased water reabsorption in kidney

Answer 194

* wound + platelets cause platelets to clump at the wound * Fibrinogen → fibrin (mesh that seals the clot)

Answer 195

* Hemoglobin = 4(heme + globin) * heme binds iron, globin surrounds heme * 4 subunits = tetramer * Hematocrit = % volume of blood that is RBC (45%) * Millions of hemoglobin per RBC

Answer 196

Sigmoidal (easier for additional oxygen to bind after the first one)

Answer 197

True False

Answer 198

* Equalizaiton of fluid distribution * Transport of proteins and large glycerides * Production of lymphocytes in immune reactions * Return of materials in the blood * Source of lymph

Answer 199

* Fats are absorbed into the lacteals in the small intestine * lacteal = lymphatic capillary in the small intestine * Plasma protein that leaked into interstitial fluids get returned to the blood via the lymphatic system

Answer 200

stuff that leaks out of capillaries- mostly water, plasma protein, chemicals, white blood cells

Answer 201

* **macrophages:** phagocytose pathogen, act as antigen presenting cell * **neutrophils:** phagocytose pathogen and destroys it * **mast cells:** release histamine during allergic response, bring about inflammation * **natural killer cells: **kills infected/abnormal cells * **dendritic cells:** the best antigen presenting cells

Answer 202

* Matures in **T**hymus * cytotoxic T cell: regognize antigen on infected cell, signal for apoptosis * helper T cell: regocnize antigen, signal for activation of B cells, T cells and macrophages

Answer 203

* Matures in **B**one marrow * Plasma cells = secrete antibody * Memory cells = stick around in case the same antigen attacks in the future

Answer 204

2 heavy and 2 light chains are linked by disulfide bonds

Answer 205

Makes hormones, secrete hormones into surrounding tissue fluids

Answer 206

* Endocrine- hormone, no duct, acts long distances * Exocrine- non-hormone secretions into ducts * Autocrine- local chemicals, act short distances on themselves * Paracrine- local chemicals, act short distances on other cells

Answer 207

Releasing hormones for the pituitary, ADH, and oxytocin

Answer 208

Makes: FLAT PEG, stores ADH and oxytocin * **F**SH: follicle stimulating hormone (stimulates ovary follicles to mature, testis to produce sperm) * **L**H: leutenizing hormone (triggers ovulation, stimulates testis to produce testosterone) * **A**CTH: AdrenoCorticoTropic Hormone (stimulates adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids) * **T**SH: thyroid stimulating hormone * **P**RL: Prolactin (stimulates breast to produce milk) * **E**: Endorphine * **G**H: growth hormone (growth of muscle, bone, burns fast)

Answer 209

Endocrine gland that makes melatonin, which makes you sleepy at night

Answer 210

thyroid hormones (increase metabolism, requires iodine) Calcitonin (turns blood Ca²⁺ into bone)

Answer 211

Makes parathyroid hormone (PTH) which increases blood Ca²⁺

Answer 212

makes thymus hormones, stimulates T cells to develop

Answer 213

* Epi and norepi (fight or flight) * Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) - increase Na+ and water retention, raises blood rpessure * Glucocorticoids (cortisol) - stress hormone, increase blood sugar * Androgens (testosterone)

Answer 214

* Glucagon (increase blood sugar) * breaks down glycogen, stimulates gluconeogenesis * Insulin (lower blood sugar) * stimulates glucose uptake by cells

Answer 215

ovaries: estrogen and a small amount of testosterone testis: make testosterone

Answer 216

No insulin made, or no insulin receptors Glucose can't enter cells High blood sugar Fatty acid metabolism, production of ketone bodies, ketoacidosis Sugar in urine

Answer 217

Hypo: not enough TH, low metabolism (lack of Iodine- goiter develops from too much TH precursor) Hyper: too much TH, high metabolism

Answer 218

1. Amino acid hormone binds to membrane receptor 2. G-protein activated 3. Adenylate cyclase activated 4. cAMP made 5. Protein kinase cascade

Answer 219

1. Amino acid hormone binds membrane receptor 2. G protein activated 3. Phospholipase C activated 4. Membrane phospholipid split into DAG and IP3 5. DAG triggers protein kinase cascade 6. IP3 releases Ca²⁺ from the ER

Answer 220

1. Steroid hormone goes inside cell 2. Hormone binds receptor inside cell 3. Hormone-receptor complex turns on certain genes inside the nucleus

Answer 221

* **Humoral**: glands respond to chemical levels in blood * **Neural**: glands release hormones when stimulated by nerves * **Hormonal**: glands release hormones when stimulated by other hormones (tropic hormones)

Answer 222

* Sensory = Afferent = carry signal to CNS * Motor = Efferent = carry signal toward effector organs * Somatic (voluntary) - skeletal muscles * Autonomic (involuntary) - visceral organs * Sympathetic (fight or flight) * Parasympathetic (rest)

Answer 223

Positive: reinforce initial event Negative: counteracts initial event

Answer 224

Receptor → sensory neuron → integration center → motor neuron → effector (bypasses the brain)

Answer 225

rods (senses light and dark)- most sensitive cones (senses color)- less sensitive

Answer 226

* Lens of eye, like a convex lens in physics, forms a real image on the retina * Real images are inverted

Answer 227

* Heat homeostasis * Water homeostasis * Osmoregulation * Protect against UV radiation (makes melanin) * Make vitamin D * bblood reservoir * Sense * Protection

Answer 228

* Male: Testes * Make sperm in seminiferous tubules * Makes testosterone * external * Female: ovaries * houses immature egg, matures monthly after puberty * Makes estrogen * internal

Answer 229

**S**eminiferous tubules, **E**pididymis, **V**as deferens, **E**jaculatory duct, **n**othing, **U**rethra, **P**enis (sevenup)

Answer 230

* Primary oocyte matures into secondary oocyte * Endometrium thickens, if no fertilization, menses occurs

Answer 231

Stimulates release of FSH and LH

Answer 232

follicle stimulating hormone- stimulates the growth and maturation of follicle Follicle- houses oocyte and produces estrogen

Answer 233

Normally inhibits LH (leutinizing hormone) and FSH (follicle stimulating hormone), causes LH surge when it eraches a threshold

Answer 234

Leutinizing hormone stimulates the outer cells of the follicle turns it into corpus luteum + maintains it **LH surge triggers:** primary oocyte → secondary oocyte → rupture of follicle

Answer 235

makes estrogen and progesterone maintains endometrium

Answer 236

No fertilization → LH falls → corpus luteum dies → estrogen and progesterone fall → endometrium dies (menses) → cycle begins anew with FSH and LH re-rising Fertilization occurs → implanted embryo releases hCG → hCG mimics LH to maintain corpus luteum → estrogen and progesterone maintained by corpus luteum → placenta takes over the responsibility of making estrogen and progesterone later on

Answer 237

* Spermatogonium (2n) * primary spermatocyte (2n) * secondary spermatocyte (n) * spermatid (n) * sperm/spermatozoa (n)

Answer 238

* Oogonia (2n) * Primary Oocyte (2n) * Meiosis I halts at prophase * After puberty, meiosis I completes monthly * Secondary Oocyte (n) * Ovulation (meiosis II halts at metaphase) * Sperm contact (meiosis II completes) * Mature ovum (n) * sperm + egg nuclei * Zygote * Blastomeres (16-32 cells) * Morula * Blastocyte * Inner cell mass * Trophoblast

Answer 239

* endoderm (innermost layer) guts, lungs, digestive internal organs (liver/pancreas) * mesoderm (middle layer) muscles, blood, bones, internal organs * ectoderm (outermost layer) skin and nerves (including the brain)

Answer 240

ability to pass your genes on, reproductive success

Answer 241

Selects for a trait on one extreme (ex. tall trees)

Answer 242

Selects for a trait that is moderate (ex. birthweight)

Answer 243

Selects for the extremes

Answer 244

Increase in percent representation in the gene pool of the next generation * If the frequency of an allele increased, then that's evolutionary success for that allele * If the frequency of alleles of an individual increased in a population, then tha's evolutionary success for that individual

Answer 245

* Be able to interbreed * Be able to produce fertile, viable offspring * Does this naturally

Answer 246

Different forms of alleles/traits

Answer 247

Bottleneck: severe reduction in populatino size Genetic drift: random changes in allele frequencies (increases as population size decreases)

Answer 248

* **Divergent:** same lineage, evolving apart to be more different, produces homologous structures * **Parallel:** same lineage, evolving closer together to be similar, using similar mechanisms * **Convergent:** different lineage, evolving closer together to be similar, using different mechanisms * **Coevolution****:** 2 species evolve in response to eachother

Answer 249

* Ontogeny = development through the life of an organism * Phylogeny = development through evolutionary time of lineages/species

Answer 250

one phylum of the animal kingdom * notochord- backbone of the embryo * Pharyngeal pouches, branchial arches, gill slits * dorsal nerve chords * Vertebrate- group of chordates (subphylum)