Biology Flashcards
Which of the following is true about the role of LH in the menstrual cycle?
LH causes the ruptured follicle to become the corpus luteum and secrete progesterone and estrogen.
What are the female chromosomes
XX
What are the male chromosomes
XY
A diet high in saturated fats can be most directly linked to development of
Atherosclerosis.
What is caused by low blood sugar?
Hypoglycemia
What does the kidney do
The kidney keeps the relative concentrations of inorganic ions in the body’s blood plasma at a constant level.
Describe cardiac muscle
It is innervated by the autonomic nervous system, it is striated and requires Ca2+ (just like skeletal and smooth muscle). It can contract without stimulation from the nervous system (unlike any other muscle)
A capillary has
A higher hydrostatic pressure at the arteriole end and a lower hydrostatic pressure at the venule end.
What is hydrostatic pressure
The force per area that blood exerts on the walls of the blood vessels
Describe the glycolytic pathway
For each molecule of glucose that undergoes glycolysis, two net molecules of ATP and two molecules of NADH are produced. And 2 molecules of pyruvic acid are formed for each molecule of glucose. It is an anaerobic process. The glucose is partially oxidized (not reduced)
How many times must the Krebs cycle turn in order to completely oxidize each molecule of glucose
Twice, once per each pyruvic acid. Glucose makes 2 pyruvic acids from glycolysis
What is the role of progesterone
It stimulates vascularization and maintenance of the endometrium
Which region of the kidney has the lowest osmotic pressure
The cortex
What is high osmotic pressure
High osmotic pressure in a region implies that osmosis will act to send water to that region (there is a lot of stuff there, high solute concentration, and little water)
Which cross CANNOT result in a type O offspring
AB X O AB = I(A) and I(B) O = I and I No cross results in I homozygous If it is just A or B it could be I(A) and I or I(B) and I
What is the cerebellum involved in?
Involved in balance, hand-eye coordination, and the timing of rapid movements
What is the Medulla Oblongata involved in
Controlling heart rate, controls the rate and depth of breathing
What is the cerebrum/cerebral cortex involved in
Processing sensory input, such as vision, smell, and taste, also important for memory and creative thought
What is the hypothalamus involved in?
Responsible for temperature regulation, and huger and thirst drives
What are restriction enzymes
Cut specific DNA sequences
What are helicase
Unwind DNA
What is a polymerase
Synthesize nucleic acids
What is ligase
Joins two DNA strands
What are totipotent cells
They have the potential to develop into any type of tissue
What are leydig cells
Produce testosterone in males
What do denitrifying bacteria do
Converts NO3- into N2
What do nitrifying bacteria do
Convert NH3 into NO3-
When a virus infects bacteria, what is the lysogenic cycle?
In the lysogenic cycle, the phage attaches to a host bacterial cell and injects its DNA into the bacterium. The phage DNA is integrated into the genome of the bacterial host, and when the bacterium divides by binary fission, the viral DNA is passed on to daughter cells.
When a virus infects bacteria, what is the lytic cycle?
The phage attaches to a host bacterial cell and injects its DNA into the bacterium. The virus uses the nucleotides, enzymes, and ribosomes of the host bacterium to replicate, and organizes the DNA and coat proteins into new phages. The host cell bursts, releasing the phages.
What is the order of developmental events
Fertilization -> Cleavage to produce the next two -Morula (solid ball of embryonic cells) -> Blastula (hollow ball of embryonic cells)-> Implantation in uterine wall -> Gastrula -> Developing nervous system (Neurulation)
Tetracyline is toxic to prokaryotes but not to eukaryotes, what does it attack?
Attacks the ribosomal subunits, the ribosomes of prokaryotes differ from those of eukaryotes
What is the mechanism of heat loss
There is a dilation of blood vessels, if the vessels are expanded, more heat from the blood can be lost to the skin
What is the mechanism for heat retention
Shivering - via rapid contraction of skeletal muscles
Or constriction of blood vessels, keeps the body warm by minimizing the amount of heat that is lost to the skin from the blood by minimizing the amount of blood that comes into contact with the skin
What is transformation
DNA enters the cell form the environment
What is conjugation
Genetic material is passed from one cell to another via a conjugation bridge
What is transduction
Bacterial DNA is transferred from one cell to another via bacteriophage
What is binary fission
The process of cell division in prokaryotes
How does the poison cyanide work?
Inhibits aerobic ATP formation
A patient with a peptic ulcer takes a large overdose of an antacid, which enzyme is most affected?
Pepsin
What is epithelial tissue
Covers the free surfaces of the body (skin)
What is muscle tissue
Consists of muscle fibers
What is nerve tissue
Made almost entirely of neurons and neurological cells
What is connective tissue
Bone, blood, and tendons, contain cells that are separated by and suspended in some sort of matrix
What causes color blindness
A recessive allele
What is the hierarchy of classification
Kingdom -> Phylum -> Class -> Order -> Family -> Genus -> Species
What are the two well-known examples of recessive sex-linked traits in humans
Red-green color blindness and hemophilia
What are sensory and afferent neurons
Sends signals towards the central nervous system
What are motor or efferent neurons
Have axons outside and directed away from the central nervous system, sends signals out to peripheral points
What is the axial skeleton
Skull, vertebral column, and rib cage
What is the appendicular skeleton
Bones of the paired appendages, the pectoral and pelvic girdles
What are glial cells
They bind neurons together, they offer nerve cells support, protection and nutritional supply
What are cilia
They line the upper respiratory tract, waving against air inflow to filter out unneeded debris
What are villi
Finger like extensions of the membranes of cells lining the small intestine, they increase surface area to facilitate absorption of digested nutrients
What are goblet cells
The secrete mucus in the small intestine
What happens during the first trimester of development
Cleavage and implantation occur within the first week, the embryonic membranes begin to develop, followed by gastrulation (the differentiation into the 3 germ layers) and neurulation, Then organ development begins (eyes, heart, limb buds, and other organs). Then morphogenesis. IMPORTANT for differentiation and development but growth is not pronounced
What is morphogenesis
Refers to the development of form or structure
What happens during the second trimester of development
Period of rapid growth in size and weight
What happens during the third trimester of development
Growth continues and is most prominent during this trimester
What is the universal recipient blood type?
AB+
What is the universal donor blood type
O
What is morphology
Body structure
What is phylogeny
Evolutionary History
What causes the change from normal hemoglobin to sickle-cell anemia
Caused by the substitution of the amino acid
What are the primary targets of B-cells
Bacteria
What are the primary targets of T-cells
Everything else besides bacteria
What is the surface geometry of enzymes composed of
Amino acids, enzymes are composed of proteins
What is translocation
The attachment of a chromosome fragment to a nonhomologous chromosome
What is duplication
The attachment of the fragment to the homologous chromosomes counterpart, thus repeating gene types already there
What is inversion
The reattachment of the fragment to the original chromosome, but in reversed orientation resulting in reversed gene order
What is deletion
The chromosome fragment does not reattach
What is the order of which sperm travel through
Testis, epididymis, vas deferens, prostate gland, and the urethra
What are the 3 main heart layers
Epicardium, Myocardium, and Endocardium
What is the contraction of the heart
Systole
What is the relaxation of the heart
Diastole
What are “gap junctions”
An organized collections of protein channels in cell membranes that allows ions and small molecules to pass between adjacent cells
Peptidyl Transferase
Catalyzes the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids during protein synthesis. Peptidyl implies that it is involved in the assembly of proteins
What do nitrogen-fixing bacteria do
Converts N2 to NH3
What determines a virus’s infective properties
The interactions between the proteins on the surface of a host cell and the virus. Without proper interaction the virus can not properly infect the host cell
What kind of bonds do saturated fats have
Consist of only single bonds
What kind of bonds do unsaturated fats have
At least 1 double bond
What is synpasis
The pairing of two homologous chromosomes during meiosis
What accounts for a female with XXX chromosome
Nondisjunction of chromosomes during meisos, a chromosome pair fails to separate properly
Exocrine Gland
Glands that have ducts to carry their secretions to specific locations. Examples include the salivary glands whose ducts carry saliva to the mouth, or the pancreas whose duct carries pancreatic fluid to the duodenum (first section of the small intestine).
Endocrine Gland
Glands of “internal secretion” whose secretions are usually secreted directly into the blood. Most hormones are secreted in this manner. Examples are follicle stimulating hormone from the anterior pituitary or thryoxin from the thryoid.
What are the five conditions for a population to remain in Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
No genetic drift, no migration, no mutation, no selection and random mating
Muscularis Externa
Muscle layer in the digestive tract that is composed of smooth, or in some cases striated, muscle. Usually 2-3 layers. A network of nerves (Auerbach plexus) regulates muscle contraction and controls bolis motility in the gastrointestinal tract
Bolus
A ball of food that has been chewed to the point of swallowing
Introns
The non-coding parts of mRNA, removed from splicing after transcription
Exons
Coding parts of mRNA, joined together after introns are removed
What is the first major organ to develop in the fetus
The heart, formed from the mesoderm
What are ceruminous glands
Specialized sudoriferous glands (sweat glands) located subcutaneously in the external auditory canal.
What are mammary glands
Produce milk in women
What are sebaceous glands
Tiny glands located on the skin and secrete sebum
What is sebum
Substance that consists of waxes, lipids and other cellular material thats and forms an oily film that protects the skin against drying, lubricates the hair follicles, and creates a waterproof effect on the skin
What are sudoriferous glands
Sweat glands, are small tubular structures of the skin that produce sweat.
What is immuoelectrophoresis
Procedures involving electrophoresis and immunopreciptation that are used for separation of proteins and their reaction with antibodies
Describe water-soluble vitamins
Can’t be stored in the body and are absorbed directly into the bloodstream form intestines, then are excreted through urine when in excess. Most water soluble is Vitamin C
Describe fat-soluble vitamins
Absorbed into the lymphatic system, after which they enter the bloodstream
What does aldosterone (mineralcorticoid) regulate
It regulates the re-absorption of sodium, secretion of potassium and water retention. (acts on the kidneys)
Where is vitamin E primarily found
Vitamin E is found in meat, eggs, some vegetables, and dairy products, a fat-soluble vitamin
What causes leprosy
A chronic bacterial disease that is caused my Mycobacterium leprae
What causes Anthrax
A highly infectious disease that is caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis
What causes chicken pox, rabies and hepatitis
Viruses
What are endorphins
Naturally occurring substances released by the pituitary gland and hypothalamus that function as analgesics and block pain messages. They are natural painkillers. Analgesics such as morphine and heroin target the same pain receptors as endorphins and produce similar effects on the body
What is the primary function of the semicircular canals located in the human ear
Consists of three connected tubes that function as part of the vestibular system, the liquid in these canals moves as the head turns, enabling the human to sense the balance of the body as it moves (dynamic equilibrium)
What is the neurotransmitter released at the motor end plate to initiate muscle contraction
Acetylcholine. once its released, it diffuses across the synapse and binds to specialized receptors on the skeletal muscle fibers, opening a sodium channel in the cell membrane. Sodium ions pass through the channel and cause a muscle contraction
Describe the atmospheric pressure during inspiration
The atmospheric pressure is higher than the intra-alveolar pressure, causing an intake of air
Describe the atmospheric pressure during expiration
The atmospheric pressure is lower than the intra-alveolar pressure, causing a exhalation of air.
What does Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) do
Catalyzes the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II
What does renin do
Catalyzes the conversion of angiotensinogen to angiotensin I
What does angiotensin II do
Constriction of the walls of the arterioles closing down capillary beds and stimulation of proximal tubules to reabsorb sodium ions
Which carbohydrate is indigestable for mammals
Cellulose
What is a vestigial organ
Structures that have minimal effect in the function of an organism, but which had useful functions in an ancestral species of the organism that were later lost through evolution. Appendix, coccyx, plica semilunaris of the eye, wisdom teeth, and various muscle structures
What is a prion
Proteinaceous infectious particle, the smallest known infectious agent is is composed of one or more protein molecules witjjhout any genetic information. Causes transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, including CJD, scrapies, and kuru
What are the 3 germ layers that form during embryonic development
Ectoderm (outer) Mesoderm (middle) and Endoderm (inner)
What is the Ectoderm
Epidermis, hair, nails epithelium of nose mouth and anal canal, lens of eye, nervous system
What is the Mesoderm
Musculoskeletal system, circulatory system (Heart), excretory system, gonads, muscular and connective tissue coats of digestive and respiratory systems
What is the Endoderm
Epithelial linings of digestive and respiratory tracts parts of the liver, pancreas, thyroid, bladder, and distal urinary and reproductive areas
What is incomplete dominance
Offsprings that have a phenotype somewhere that is in-between those of the parents’
What is Vitamin K associated with
It is associated with clotting time, a deficiency would result in longer times required for clotting
What is hypotension
Low blood pressure
Retinopathy
Damage to the retina in the eye
Glycosuria
Excretion of glucose in the urine
What are cytotoxic T cells
They are part of the cell-mediated immune response and are activated by specific contacts with already infected cells, they bind and kill antigen-presenting (infected) cells
What do B cells do (B lympocytes)
Are activated by antigens in the circulatory and lymphatic systems of the body to produce antibodies and secondary agents to do with the immunological defense, these cells do not directly attack already-infected cells in the cell-mediated fashion like T cells but respond to free-floating antigens in circulatory fluid via antibody secretion
What do plasma cells do
They secrete antibodies that bind antigens to make them easier targets for phagocytes, do not directly attack already infected cells
What do macrophages do
They are anti-gen presenting cells that stimulate cytotoxic T cells and B cells, they physically scavenge the antigens but do not take part in the cell-mediated response toward an already-infected cell in a cell-mediated response. Specialized connective tissue found in lymph
What is smooth muscle
A type of nonstriated muscle found in the walls of hollow organs (bladder, uterus, GI tract, and blood vessels). Has a random myofilament pattern
Where does glycogenesis occur
The formation of glycogen, it takes place in the liver
What is an agonist
A drug that binds to the postsynaptic receptors and triggers a response by the cell
What are probiotics
Living microorganisms, usually known as “friendly” bacteria that have health benefits in the body. Lactobacillus acidophilus
What are the atmospheric concentrations of gases
Nitrogen: 78%
Oxygen: 21%
Carbon Dioxide: 0.04%
Argon: 1%
Why is cholesterol important
It is important in acting as the precursor for the development of steroid hormones such as testosterone and estrogen produced by gonads and adrenal cortex
What are waterborne bacteria most likely to infect
The digestive tract in that bacteria are known to be preset in contaminated water and or food
What are airborne bacteria most likely to infect
The respiratory system
What is polyploidy
Organisms that contain two or more paired chromosomes. Increase in number of chromosomes, does not require genetic engineering
What is a pandemic
Defined as an outbreak of a disease that occurs over a wide geogrpahic area and affects an exceptionally high proportion of the population
What is an epidemic
Defined as affecting or tending to affect a disproportionately large number of individuals within a population, community, or region at the same time
What is a syndemic
The aggregation of two or more diseases in a population in which there is some level of positive biological interaction that exacerbates the negative health effects of any or all the diseases
What is an endemic
Defined as a disease or diseases that are restricted or peculiar to a locality or region
What happens to the uterine lining in the menstrual cycle
The uterine lining is shed
What are adipocytes
Specialized connective tissue cells that are sponsible for the production and storage of fat
What are mast cells
Mobile connective tissue cells often found near blood vessels and nerves
What are the 4 phases of wound healing
Hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling/maturation
What happens in the hemostasis phase of wound healing
Damage blood vessels must be sealed with platelets, blood vessels can also constrict
What happens in the inflammation phase of wound healing
Leukocytes and macrophages clear the wound of cellular debris, swelling and warmth
What happens in the proliferation phase of wound healing
Granulation tissue (fibroblasts, collagen, capillaries, and neutrophils) develop in the wound and the wound begins to contract. Then during epithelialization, cells at the surface edges of the wound divide and seal the wound
What happens during the maturation phase
The collagen fibers reorganize, remodel, and mature, which increases tensile strength
What is the p53 gene
A tumor-suppressing gene that regulates the cell cycle and stops the formation of tumors. It is capable of preventing tumor formation by triggering cell death, activating p21 which results in the induction of the growth arrest either before G1 phase of before G2 phase. It can bind to specific sites within DNA and support repair
What are oncogenes
Genes that cause tumors by inducing point mutations within a gene
The heart is composed of what cells
Myocardial cells
Myo-“ muscle
-cardial: heart
The liver is composed of what cells
Hepatic cells
Hepatic refers to all things liver
What is the pericardium
The fibrous sac that encloses the heart
What are centromeres
Joins two sister chromatids in a replicated chromosome, also serves as an attachment point for spindle fibers. (Inner kinetochore)
What are microfilaments
A structure found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells, it facilitates movement
What is a microtubule
A component found in the cytoskeleton found throughout the cytoplasm. Both microfilaments and microtubules make up the cytoskeleton
What is a cytoskeleton
The cellular skeleton of a cell in a cell’s cytoplasm
What is a centriole
Centrioles are involved in the organization of the mitotic spindle and in the completion of cytokinesis. The pairs move to the opposite ends of the cell and form the anchor for the spindles
What is a kinetochore
Protein structure on the chromatid where the spindle fibers attach during mitosis (Outer kinetochore) to pull the sister chromatids apart
What is the recombination rate related to in genes
The distance between the genes on the chromosome, the greater the distance, the more recombination will be observed. Smaller distance represents closer genes that will show fewer recombinations
What does it mean if certain genes are consistently inherited together
It means that the genes are probably all on the same chromosome, an example of genetic linkage
What is vitamin C
Ascorbic acid
What does the human cold virus infect
It infects the upper respiratory tract of the human body, has the most effect on the nasal passages
What immediate action of cocaine is to block the reuptake of neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin causes what
It will result in an excess of neurotransmitters in the synapse
What is a nosocomial infection
An infection that occurs after treatment in a hospital or other medical facility, but it must be unrelated to the condition that the patient was originally tested for.
What is phagocytosis
During the penetration stage of viral replication, the virus can dissolve the cell membrane and insert its genome into the cell cytoplasm
What causes athletes foot
A fungus
Where are ribosomes made
rRNA is transcribed, linked to proteins and large and small ribosomal subunits are formed in the nucleolus and transported out separately through the nuclear pores
What are lysosomes
THe cell’s digestive organelles
What is the golgi complex
Involved in the processing and sorting of proteins and lipids
What is the rough ER
Has ribosomes attached and is involved in the synthesis of secretory, lysosomal, membrane proteins and membrane lipids
What is the primary function of the liver
Regulate blood sugar levels. It is crucial for metabolism it produces bile for digestion, stores and regulates sugars, fats, and other important nutrients, detoxifies blood, produces hormones (erthyropoiten), synthesizes blood proteins, aids in decomposition of blood cells, and etc
What are osteoclasts
Cells that are involved in the resabsorption of bone, bone is broken down and minerals released. Excavate bone cavaties
What are osteoblasts
Cells that form the bone matrix, make bone
What are osteocytes
Cells commonly found in mature bone and can live as long as the organism itself, not active cell, does not divide
What are osteons
Functional fundamental unit of compact bone (cylindrical)
In the kidney, what is maximally reabsorbed into the bloodstream
100% of glucose and amino acids
91% of uric acid
60% of inorganic salts
reabsorbed into the blood by active transport
Where does reabsorption take place in the kidney
In the proximal convoluted tubule, fluids entering are reabsorbed into the peritubular capillaries
What is a isotonic solution
Even exchange between cell and environment, nothing happens
What is a hypotonic solution
Extracellular environment is less concentrated than the cytoplasm of the cell, H2O will enter the cell and cause it to lyse (burst)
What is a hypertonic solution
Extracellular environment is more concentrated than the cytoplasm of the cell, H2O will leave the cell and cause the cell to shrivel
