Biology Flashcards
1
Q
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)
A
organism where changes were made in the genome, using high-tech genetic engineering
2
Q
Genetic engineering
A
a process that uses laboratory-based technologies to alter the DNA makeup of an organism
3
Q
Gel electrophoresis
A
a laboratory method used to separate mixtures of DNA, RNA, or proteins according to molecular size. Separated molecules are pushed by an electrical field through a gel that contains small pores. It’s used to test how many different DNA fragments are present in a sample and how large they are compared to each other.
4
Q
Artificial selection
A
an evolutionary process in which humans consciously select for or against particular features in organisms. Humans control breeding in animals to control desirable features.
5
Q
Hybrid
A
the offspring of two plants/animals of different species. Offspring combines qualities of two parents.
6
Q
Restriction enzymes
A
a protein isolated from bacteria that splits DNA sequences at sequence-specific sites, producing DNA fragments with a known sequence at each end.
7
Q
Inbreeding
A
the production of offspring from the mating or breeding of individuals of organisms that are closely related genetically. Can cause many genetic disorders/disabilities.
8
Q
Recombinant DNA
A
the joining together of DNA molecules from two different species. Method can be used to combine or splice DNA from different species or to create genes with new functions.
9
Q
Biotechnology
A
technology that utilizes biological systems, living organisms or parts of this to develop or create different products
10
Q
plasmid
A
small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule, distinct from cell’s chromosomal DNA. Plasmids carry many genes that benefit bacteria for survival.
11
Q
selective breeding
A
choosing parents with particular characteristics to breed together and produce offspring with more desirable characteristics.
12
Q
organic
A
involving organisms or the products of their life processes
13
Q
transgenic organisms
A
an organism or cell whose genome has been altered by the introduction of one or more foreign DNA sequences from another species by artificial means
14
Q
clone
A
an organism or cell, or group of organisms or cells, produced asexually from one ancestor or stock, to which they are genetically identical .
15
Q
How does gel electrophoresis work?
A
This lets you distinguish DNA fragments of different lengths. You have the gel box, and you put pores inside the box. Once you put the DNA in, an electric current is applied across the gel so that one end of the gel has a positive charge and the other end has a negative charge. These charged molecules move towards the opposite charge. DNA is negatively charged, so the electric current will cause the DNA to go towards the positively charged side. Shorter strands of DNA move faster through the gel than longer strands, resulting in the fragments being arranged in order of size. The shorter pieces will be closer to the positive, while the longer will be farther away.
16
Q
What types of food are most commonly genetically modified?
A
cornstarch, corn syrup, corn oil, soybean oil, canola oil, or granulated sugar. A few fresh fruit and vegetables are available in GMO varieties, including potatoes, summer squash, apples, papayas, and pink pineapples
17
Q
What process makes transgenic organisms, give examples and their uses
A
Transgenesis is the process of inserting the transgene into a new organism using recombinant DNA technology.
18
Q
What is the main reason for making GMO’s
A
Help farmers prevent crop loss, farmers spray less pesticides, food more nutritious, grows faster, longer shelf life.
19
Q
Process of cloning
A
A tissue cell donor gives their tissue and the nucleus is removed.
The Donor who supplies unfertilized eggs gets the nucleus taken outside of the egg cell.
Now the Nucleus from the tissue cell donor fuses with the empty egg cell from the egg donor. The embryo is left to grow for a week and then put into a surrogate mother.
The offspring is cloned with the exact same DNA as the tissue cell donor.
20
Q
Natural selection
A
mechanism of evolution. Organisms that are more adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and pass on the genes that aided their success.
21
Q
Survival of the fittest
A
in dangerous circumstances, only those individuals most adapted to their environment survive
22
Q
Descent with modification
A
the idea that species change over time, give rise to new species, and share a common ancestor
23
Q
Vestigial structures
A
Structures that have no apparent function and appear to be residual parts from a past ancestor. Lost its original function and isn’t needed anymore
24
Q
Adaption
A
A heritable behavioral, morphological, or physiological trait that has evolved through the process of natural selection, and maintains or increases the fitness of an organism under a given set of environmental conditions. The act of changing something or changing your behavior to make it suitable for a new purpose or situation.
25
Mutation
the changing of the structure of a gene, resulting in a variant form that may be transmitted to subsequent generations, caused by the alteration of single base units in DNA, or the deletion, insertion, or rearrangement of larger sections of genes or chromosomes
26
Homologous structures
similar physical features in organisms that share a common ancestor, but the features serve completely different functions
27
Analogous structures
features of different species that are similar in function but not necessarily in structure and which do not derive from a common ancestral feature
28
Geologic Time Scale
divides up the history of the earth based on life-forms that have existed during specific times since the creation of the planet
29
Evolution
the change in the characteristics of a species over several generations and relies on the process of natural selection.
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fitness
the ability to survive to reproductive age, find a mate, and produce offspring
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fossil
the geologically altered remains of a once-living organism and/or its behavior
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embryology
the branch of biology and medicine concerned with the study of embryos and their development
33
common ancestor
ancestral organism shared by two or more descendant lineages. Species that have an organism in common.
34
Genetic variation
differences among the genomes of members of the same species. A genome is all the hereditary information, all the genes of an organism. Ex. human hair color, skin color, height, shape, behavior, and susceptibility to disease.
35
Geographic isolation
a term used to describe the physical separation of populations of organisms from one another due to geographical barriers. Basically when you separate a species of animals, they are isolated so they become two different species. For example when the Grand Canyon was formed, a species of squirrels got separated, creating another species of squirrels.
36
Where did Charles Darwin travel for a 5 year period of time?
Galápagos Islands
37
Describe the observations Darwin made on his trip about organisms, specifically finches and tortoise
Darwin saw that different finches on different islands had different shaped beaks depending on what type of food they ate and how they had to acquire/eat it. He noticed they belonged to the same family, but had genetic variations with their beak size and shape.
Darwin noticed that different tortoise species lived on islands with different environments. These traits allowed them to live in these particular environments. Tortoises that ate plants near the ground had rounded shells and shorter necks, and ones with longer necks ate food higher up.
38
What are four lines of evidence to support the theory of evolution
fossils, embryology, vestigial structures, and adaptation
39
Explain the theory of evolution by the process of natural selection
Organisms that are more adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and pass on the genes that aided their success
40
Distinguish between homologous and analogous structures, and give examples of each
Homologous structures are 2 structures that look alike, but they have completely different functions, coming from the same ancestor.
Analogous structures are 2 structures that have the same function, but look different and come from different ancestors.
Homologous- limbs of humans, cats, whales, and bats
Analogous- wings on insects, bats, and birds
41
Domain
Highest taxonomic ranking/classification above the kingdom level.
Bacteria, archaea, eukaryota
42
Taxonomic Order
Domain
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
King Phillip Came Over For Good Soup
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Kingdom
Taxonomic ranking, second highest
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Phylum
Taxonomic ranking, third highest
45
Class
Taxonomic ranking, fourth highest
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Order
Taxonomic ranking, fifth highest
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Family
Taxonomic ranking, sixth highest
48
Genus
Taxonomic ranking, seventh highest
49
Species
Taxonomic ranking, eighth highest
50
Domain Eukarya
the only domain that consists of multicellular and visible organisms, like people, animals, plants and trees
4 kingdoms, Protista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia fall into this Domain
51
Domain Archaea
any group of single-celled prokaryotic organisms (organisms whose cells lack a defined nucleus) that have distinct molecular characteristics separating them from bacteria (the other, more prominent group of prokaryotes) as well as from eukaryotes
52
Domain Bacteria
Prokaryotic organisms, lacking a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. All prokaryotes are unicellular and microscopic. Prokaryotes also have cell walls, a single loop of DNA (plasmid), perform asexual reproduction, have ribosomes, and may form spores in difficult environments.
53
Prokaryote
organisms whose cells lack a nucleus and other organelles, can be bacteria and archaea
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Eukaryote
organisms whose cells contain a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles
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Binomial nomenclature
uses the genus and species name of the organism, they are both italicized, while the genus is capitalized
56
Taxon
a taxonomic group of any rank, such as species, family, or class
57
Why do scientists classify organisms and describe Linneaus' system of classifcation?
the classification of species allows the subdivision of living organisms into smaller and more specialized groups. This allowed biologists to group related species into genealogical trees, which represent the evolutionary lineage of modern organisms from common ancestors
58
Why do we give organisms scientific names and not use common names?
the scientific name is the same in any language and provides a unique name for an organisms such that two people can be sure that they are referring to the same organism
59
Eukarya Kingdoms
Eukarya- Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista
Examples:
Animalia- Dog
Plantae- Tomato
Fungi- Cordyceps
Protista- Algae
Characteristics:
Animalia- eukaryotic, multicellular, heterotrophic, no cell wall
Plantae- eukaryotic, multicellular, autotrophic, cell wall composed of cellulose
Fungi- eukaryote, most multicellular, some unicellular, heterotrophic, cell wall composed of chitin
Protista- eukaryote, some multicellular, most unicellular, some autotrophic, some heterotrophic, some have a cell wall, some don't
60
Archaea Kingdoms
Archaea- Archaebacteria
Examples:
Archaebacteria- Thermophiles, Halophiles, and Methanogens
Characteristics:
Archaebacteria- prokaryotic, unicellular, some autotrophic, some heterotrophic, cell wall composed of Polysaccharide pseudomurein
61
Bacteria Kingdoms
Bacteria- Eubacteria
Examples:
Eubacteria- E. coli, bacillus, staphylococcus
Characteristics:
Eubacteria- prokaryotic, unicellular, some autotrophic, some heterotrophic, cell wall composed of peptidoglycan
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Largest to smallest levels of classification
Domain
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
63
Scientific name for humans
Homo sapiens (italicized)
64
Antibiotic
medicines that fight bacterial infections in people and animals, work by killing bacteria or by making it hard for bacteria to grow and multiply
65
cell wall
a structural layer that surrounds some cell types, found immediately outside the cell membrane
66
bacteria
single-celled microorganisms that lack a nuclear membrane, are metabolically active and divide by binary fission
67
cell/plasma membrane
provides protection for a cell, transports nutrients into the cell and also to transport toxic substances out of the cell
68
Coccus
any spherical or roughly spherical bacterium
69
ribosomes
the cellular machinery responsible for making proteins. They perform biological protein synthesis (messenger RNA translation) They link amino acids together in the order specified by the codons of messenger RNA molecules to form polypeptide chains
70
Bacillus
a rod-shaped bacterium, disease causing, produces toxins
71
flagellum
a slender threadlike structure, especially a microscopic appendage that enables many protozoa, bacteria, spermatoza, etc. to swim.
72
spirillum
a bacterium with a rigid spiral structure, found in stagnant water and sometimes causing disease
73
Staphylococcus aureus (italicized)
This bacteria's spread by having direct contact with an infected person. This is a gram-positive bacteria that causes a wide variety of clinical diseases.
74
pathogen
a bacterium, virus, or other microorganism that can cause disease
75
Stenotrophomonas (italicized)
You can get it from the hospital machine, it lives in there. This is the most common carbapenem-resistant gram-negative bacterial cause of bloodstream infections
76
Zone of Inhibition
a circular area around the spot of the antibiotic in which the bacteria colonies do not grow
77
pili
a hairlike appendage found on the surface of many bacteria
78
Binary fission
asexual reproduction by a separation of the body into two new bodies. Organism duplicates its genetic material, or DNA and then divides into two parts (cytokinesis, cell division where it divides the cytoplasm of a parental cell into two daughter cells) with each new organism receiving one copy of DNA
79
virus
an infectious agent that can only replicate within a host organism, can infect bacteria, plants, and animals
80
Colony
a group of bacteria derived from the same mother cell, meaning the single mother cell reproduces to make a group of genetically identical cells, and this group of cells form a mass, which is known as a bacterial colony
81
lysogenic cycle
makes copies of virus indefinitely. Bacteriophage injects in DNA bacterium, happens like binary fission. Virus is specific to cell bacteriophage infects. Lysogenic viruses will replicate, make copies, and split, and keep growing and growing.
82
lytic cycle
Viruses that replicate immediately, and kill the host cell. It's faster, bacteriophage takes over bacteria and breaks open cell releasing all viruses to infect other cells.
83
pan resistant
the bacteria cannot be controlled or killed by antibiotics
84
Bacteria that Addie contracted
MRSA/Staphylococcus (drug-resistant form of pneumonia, got from picking scab)
Stenotrophamonas
85
How did Addie become so sick
Addie got an infection caused by one type of bacteria from picking her scab. This was MRSA. While she was in the hospital she got stenotrophomonas from one of the machines.
86
How did Addie get better?
She got a double lung transplant. She went through five years of physical therapy. She takes medications daily.
87
How would she get sick again
Addie now has a weakened immune system, and should live near a hospital and never get pregnant due to the daily medications she takes.
88
How do bacteria become resistant to antibiotics?
through a new genetic mutation that helps the bacterium survive or by getting DNA from a bacterium that is already resistant. They can become resistant through mutation and selection, acquiring certain traits overtime that allow them to "adapt" to antibiotics.
89
Identify 3 ways bacteria may spread and cause disease
Contact, airborne, sexually, ford or water, health care
90
What can a person pick up a bacterial infection?
Work place, public places, health care
91
MRSA
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Caused by a type of staph bacteria that's become resistant to many of the antibiotics. Can be spread through touch. It'll only cause an infection if it spreads inside the body.
92
3 methods for controlling spread of bacterial diseases
Stay away from sick people, cover coughs and sneezes, stay home when sick, don't touch your face, wash hands often
93
How do you treat viral infections versus bacterial infections?
Viral infections- antiviral medicines
Bacterial infections- antibiotics
94
Protostome
a multicellular organism whose mouth develops from a primary embryonic opening.
Ex. annelid, mollusk, arthropod
95
Deuterostome
the blastpore (the first opening formed during embryonic development) becomes the anus in deuterostomes
96
invertebrate
don't have a backbone or vertebral column, make up 95% of all animal species
Ex. Sea stars, worms, jellyfishes, and insects
97
Vertebrates
have a backbone, make up 5% of all animals
Ex. fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals
98
Endoderm
the innermost germ layer, for digestive/respirtory and forms inner lining of organs
99
Mesoderm
the middle layer of three germ layers, develops into organs and muscles
100
Ectoderm
outermost germ layer, forms exoskeleton
101
Blastula
an animal embryo at the early stage of development when it is a hollow ball of cells
102
Radial Symmetry
property of item that can be divided into two matching halves by an infinite number of lines
103
bilateral symmetry
the property of being divisible into symmetrical halves on either side of a unique plane
104
Cephalization
the concentration of sense organs at the anterior end of the body, forming a head and brain, both during evolution and in the course of an embryo's development
105
Gastovascular cavity
a two-way digestive tract with a single opening that serves as both the mouth and the anus for the animal
106
Characteristics that all animals possess
multicellular, eukaryotic cell structure, specialized tissue, sexual reproduction, blastula stage of development, motility, heterotrophy (ability to ingest), advanced nervous system
107
How do invertebrates differ from vertebrates
Invertebrates don't have spines, vertebrates do
108
What are the 7 essential functions all animals carry out?
feeding and digestion
respiration
circulation
excretion
response
movement and support
reproduction
109
Acoelomate
an invertebrate lacking a coelom
110
Pseudocoelomate
organisms with false body cavities. They have a fluid-filled body cavity separating the gut of the organism from the body wall but it is not lined by mesoderm.
111
coelom
the body cavity in metazoans, located between the intestinal canal and the body wall
112
intracellular digestion
digestion that takes place inside of the cell
113
extracellular digestion
digestion that takes place outside of the cell
114
external fertilization
when a male organism's sperm fertilizes a female organism's egg outside of the female's body
115
open circulatory system
pumps blood into a cavity where it surrounds the organs and then returns to the hearts. blood not enclosed in blood vessels.
116
closed circulatory system
blood pumped through vessels always
117
Hydrostatic skeleton
a cavity filled with water; the water is incompressible so the organism can use it to apply force or change shape
118
exoskeleton
a skeleton that is on the exterior of an animal to both support the body shape and protect the internal organs
119
endoskeleton
an internal skeleton
120
internal fertilization
sperm cell fertilizes egg cell inside of the female's body
121
symmetry
made up of exactly similar parts facing each other or around an axis
Ex. Sponge, Jelly Fish, Sea Star, Grasshopper, Cocci bacteria
122
Specialized cells, tissues and organs
Cells with unique structures and functions in the body. Have unique capabilities that allow them to preform different tasks.
Nerve cells, blood cells, and reproductive cells
Cartilage, bone, blood
Heart, brain, stomach, liver
123
Cephalization
the concentration of sense organs at the anterior end of the body, forming a head and brain, both during evolution and in the course of an embryo's development
Ex. lobster, humans, birds
124
Segmentation
the serial repetition of similar organs, tissues, cell types or body cavities along the anterior to posterior axis of bilaterally symmetric animals
Ex. arthropods, annelids, chordates
125
Formation of coelom
It occurs when the mesoderm, or middle layer of the three basic layers of tissue, begins to split, which develops into the coelom.
Splitting of the mesoderm, during the development of the embryo the coelom formation begins in the gastrulation stage
Ex. annelids, mollusks, arthropods
126
Embryological development
a series of events that occur early during pregnancy from the point of conception to the fetal stage of development. This is where a fertilized egg develops into an embryo. During the first few weeks a single-celled zygote turns into a fetus.
127
Intracellular vs extracellular digestion
Intracellular- break down of materials into small components takes place inside the cell. Indigestible materials excreted through exocytosis. Occurs in protozoans
Extracellular- a form of digestion where the break down of materials into smaller components takes place outside the cell. Ingestion through mouth. Indigestible materials excreted through anus. Occurs in bacteria, fungi, and in animals with alimentary canal (where food passes to anus)
128
How do different invertebrates carry out feeding and digestion
Ingested through mouth
129
How do different invertebrates carry out respiration?
Gills or lungs
130
How do different invertebrates carry out circulation?
Open circulatory system, blood flows freely through cavities since there are no vessels to conduct the blood
131
How do different invertebrates carry out excretion?
Some worms use flame cells, or nephridia to filter wastes from the blood. Other worms use a type of gut called a rectal gland to secrete wastes into the gut, insects use Malpighian tubules to filter wastes from the blood. Aquatic invertebrates get rid of ammonia by diffusion through body surface, while land animals transofmr ammonia to uric acid.
132
How do different invertebrates carry out response?
Invertebrates have sense organs, which supply information about their surroundings, they respond to stimuli.
133
How do different invertebrates carry out movement and support?
Some invertebrates are carried along by water currents, unable to control their movement, others can contract their muscles to move independently
134
How do different invertebrates carry out reproduction?
Sexual reproduction, genetic material from a male and female mixed to provide the genes necessary for life. Rarely asexual reproduction happens.
135
Hermaphrodite
an organism having both male and female sex organs or other sexual characteristics
136
Innate Behavior
Natural behaviors, not learned, instincts
137
Learned Behavior
a behavior that an organism develops as a result of experience
138
Imprinting
Where an animal forms and extremely close and dependent bond with the first animal they see after being born, tend to follow them around.
139
Migration
seasonal movement of animals from one region to another
140
Habituation
the action of becoming accustomed to something or the condition of being accustomed
Ex. a new sound in your environment, such as a new ringtone for your phone may initially draw your attention or even be distracting. As you become accustomed to this sound, you pay less attention to it, and your response diminishes.
141
Classical Conditioning
an animal makes a mental connection between stimulus and reward/punishment
142
Operant Conditioning
an animal learns to behave a certain way through repeated practice, to receive a reward or avoid punishment. Do something over and over again until you get it.
143
Insight Learning
an animal uses prior knowledge to find something new out, critical thinking. Animal applies something it already learned in a new situation.
144
Circadian Rhythm
behavioral cycles that occur in daily patterns
145
Courtship
part of overall reproductive strategy that helps animals identify mates. Individual sends out stimuli, sounds, visual displays, or chemicals. In some species, courtship involves rituals. A ritual is a series of behaviors performed the same way by all members of a population for the purpose of communicating. Most consist of specific signals, and continue until mating occurs.
146
Aggression
If a rival enters territory the "owner" may attack. Species may show aggression when they try to gain power
147
Communication
passing of information, visual, sound, touch, or chemical signals to communicate. Some animals release pheromones.
