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OAT > Biology > Flashcards

Biology Flashcards

1
Q

6 kingdoms

A

Bacteria, archaea, Protista, fungi, plantae, and animalia

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2
Q

What are the 2 major cell types

A

Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic

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3
Q

More complex than prokaryotes

A

Eukaryotes

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4
Q

Cell membrane

A

Aka plasma membrane
Regulates passage of materials into and out of the cell
Consists of phospholipid bilayer w/ proteins embedded throughout the

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5
Q

Nucleus

A

Contains dna wound structural proteins called histones

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6
Q

Ribosome

A

Facilitate protein production

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7
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum

A

Network of membrane enclosed spaces involved in the transport of materials throughout the cell, particularly those materials destined to secreted by the cell

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8
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

Primary for cellular trafficking

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9
Q

Mitochondria

A

Sites of aerobic respiration
Conversion of sugars, fats, and other sources of fuel into usable energy (ATP)

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10
Q

Cytoplasm

A

Where most of the cell’s metabolic activity occurs
Includes cytosine and all organelles of the cell

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11
Q

Cytosol

A

Cellular fluid contained within cell membrane

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12
Q

Cyclists

A

How transport w/in cytoplasm occurs
Streaming movement w/in the cell

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13
Q

Animal cell vacuole

A

Smaller than plant ones
Transport vesicle for exocytosis & endocytosis
Storage of water & minerals

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14
Q

Centrioles

A

Composed of microtubules
Involved in spindle organization during cell division

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15
Q

Lysosomes

A

Contain hydrolytic enzymes involved in intracellular digestion
Break down materials ingested by the cell

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16
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

Supports the cell, maintains its shape, and aids in cell motility

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17
Q

Components of cytoskeleton

A

Microtubules
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments

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18
Q

Microtubules

A

Hollow rods of polymerized tubulin
Provide framework for organelle movement

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19
Q

Cilia and flagella

A

Specialized arrangements of microtubules
Involved in cell motility & cytoplasmic movement

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20
Q

Microfilaments

A

Solid rods of actin
Cell movement and support
Move materials across the plasma membrane

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21
Q

Intermediate filaments

A

Like keratin
Serve as structural backbone of the cell
Can withstand a lot of tension
Help anchor organelles

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22
Q

Simple diffusion

A

Net movement of dissolved particles down their concentration gradient

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23
Q

Osmosis

A

Simple diffusion of water from region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration

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24
Q

Hypertonic cell

A

Water will flow out of the cell into the surrounding medium

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25
Q

Plasmolysis

A

Will cause cell to shrivel

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26
Q

Hypotonic

A

Water will flow into the cell causing it to swell and lyse

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27
Q

Lyse

A

Burst

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28
Q

Isotonic

A

Having the same concentration inside and outside the cell

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29
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

Net movement of dissolved particles down their concentration gradient thru special channels or carrier proteins in the cell membranes

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30
Q

Active transport

A

Net movement of dissolved particles against their concentration gradients
Requires energy

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31
Q

Symporters

A

Move 2+ ions or molecules in the same direction across the membrane

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32
Q

Antiporters

A

Exchange 1+ ions or molecules for another ion or molecule across the membrane

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33
Q

Active transport pumps

A

Energy dependent carriers; require ATP

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34
Q

Endocytosis

A

Cell invaginates, forming vesicle that contains extracellular medium
Bring large volumes of extracellular material inside the cell

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35
Q

Pinocytosis

A

Ingestion of fluids or small particles

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36
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Engulfing of large particles

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37
Q

Exocytosis

A

Release a large volume of contents to the outside

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38
Q

Unicellular organism cell division

A

Means of reproduction

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39
Q

Multicellular organism cell division

A

Method of growth, development, and replacement of worn out cells

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40
Q

2 courses of cell division

A

Mitosis and meiosis

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41
Q

Interphase

A

Period of growth and chromosome replication
Cell spends 90% of life here

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42
Q

G1 interphase

A

Initiates interphase
Active growth phase
Varies in length
Cell increases in size and synthesizes protein
Length of this phase determines length of entire cell cycle

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43
Q

s interphase

A

Period of dna synthesis

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44
Q

G2 interphase

A

Cell prepares to divide
Grows and synthesizes protein

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45
Q

M phase

A

When mitosis or meiosis occurs

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46
Q

Mitosis

A

2 daughter cells
Takes place in somatic cells
Nuclear division followed by cellular division
4 phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase

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47
Q

basic unit of DNA

A

nucleotide

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48
Q

nucleotide composition

A

deoxyribose (a sugar) bonded to a nitrogenous base

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49
Q

2 types of nitrogenous bases

A

purines and pyrimidines

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50
Q

purines in DNA

A

include adenine (A) and guanine (G)

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51
Q

pyrimidines in DNA

A

include cytosine (C) and thymine (T)

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52
Q

RNA exclusive nitrogenous base

A

uracil (U) instead of thymine (T)

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53
Q

larger in structure due to possessing a 2 ring nitrogenous base

A

purines compared to pyrmidines

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54
Q

purines pair with pyrimidines in what pattern

A

T forms 2 hydrogen bonds w/ A, and G forms 3 hydrogen bonds w/ C

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55
Q

arrangement of DNA

A

double stranded, antiparallel arrangement
Discovered by Watson & Crick

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56
Q

DNA helicase

A

breaks hydrogen bonds b/w nitrogenous bases from each strand

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57
Q

replication fork

A

the opening in the DNA molecule created by DNA helicase

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58
Q

topoisomerase

A

removes torsional strain by cutting, twisting, and then rejoining the strands of DNA

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59
Q

replication bubble

A

each single strand can as a template for complementary base pairing.
allows for synthesis of 2 new daughter strands

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60
Q

semiconservative replication

A

each new daughter helix contains an intact strand from the parent helix and a newly synthesized strand

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61
Q

DNA polymerase

A

reads the parent DNA strand & creates a complementary, antiparallel daughter strand.
always reads the parent strand in the 3’–>5’ direction which creates the daughter strand in the 5’–> 3’ direction.
can only add nucleotides to the 3’ ends

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62
Q

lagging strand of DNA

A

has its 3’ end facing away from replication fork.
synthesis and movement of replication fork are in opposite directions.

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63
Q

leading strand of DNA

A

has its 3’ end facing toward the replication fork.
continually synthesized.

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64
Q

okazaki fragments

A

short fragments of synthesized DNA

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65
Q

DNA ligase

A

joins together DNA fragments

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66
Q

gene

A

unit of DNA that encodes a specific RNA molecule thru the process of transcription and thru translation, that gene can be expressed as a protein

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67
Q

transcription

A

process in which genetic info is passed from DNA to RNA

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68
Q

template strand

A

complementary to the transcription of RNA in the 5’–>3’ direction

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69
Q

coding strand of DNA

A

identical to mRNA strand

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70
Q

translation

A

process in which genetic info is passed from mRNA to protein

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71
Q

ribonucleic acid (RNA)

A

a polynucleotide that is structurally similar to DNA but the exceptions of
- sugar constituent is ribose
- uracil in place of thymine
- most RNA is single stranded

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72
Q

where is RNA found in the cell

A

nucleus and cytoplasm

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73
Q

3 major types of RNA

A

mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA

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74
Q

messenger RNA

A
  • carries the complement of DNA sequence
  • transports info from the nucleus to the ribosomes for protein synthesis
  • made from ribonucleotides complementary to the template strand of DNA
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75
Q

transfer RNA

A
  • found in cytoplasm
  • assists in translation of mRNA’s nucleotide code into sequence of amino acids
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76
Q

anticodon

A
  • 3 nucleotide sequence
  • complementary to 1 of the mRNA codons
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77
Q

charged tRNA

A

when a tRNA is complexed w/ the appropriate amino acid

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78
Q

approx. 40 known types of tRNA

A

at least one type for each amino acid

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79
Q

ribosomal RNA

A
  • synthesized in the nucleolus of eukaryotes and in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes
  • integral part of ribosomal machinery during protein assembly
  • most abundant RNA in the cell
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80
Q

TATA box

A

approx 30 bp upstream
sequence of TATAAT

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81
Q

Pribnow box

A

approx 10 bp upstream
sequence of TTGACA

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82
Q

introns

A

extra sequences & are subsequently spliced out by the spliceosome
“INtrons stay IN the nucleus”

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83
Q

exons

A

nucleotides necessary to make the proteins & are kept during the post-transcriptional processing
“EXons will EXit the nucleus as part of the mRNA”

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84
Q

codons

A

the 3 nucleotide sequences on the mRNA that correspond to a specific amino acid.
there are 64 possible codons.
all codons are written in the 5’–>3’ direction

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85
Q

stop codons

A

instruct the ribosome to the stop translation
- UAA (U Are Annoying)
- UGA (U Go Away)
- UAG (U Are Gone)

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86
Q

translation

A

process thru which mRNA codons are translated into a sequence of amino acids.
occurs in cytoplasm & involves ribosomes, amino acids, enzymes & other proteins

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87
Q

4 stages of translation

A

initiation, elongation, translocation, & termination

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88
Q

initiation stage of translation

A

when the ribosomal subunit binds to the mRNA near its 5’ end

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89
Q

elongation stage of translation

A

3 step cycle repeated for each amino acid.
ribosome moves in the 5’ to 3’ direction along the mRNA

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90
Q

3 important binding sites of the ribosome

A

A-site: holds the incoming aminoacyl-tRNA complex
P-site: holds the tRNA that carries the growing polypeptide chain, and where initiation complex formed
E-site: where the now uncharged tRNA briefly pauses before it is expelled from the ribosome, to be recharged

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91
Q

peptide bond

A

formed when polypeptide is passed from the tRNA in the p-site to the tRNA in the a-site

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92
Q

translocation stage of translation

A

ribosome advances 3 nucleotides along the mRNA in the 5’ to 3’ direction

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93
Q

termination stage of translation

A

triggered once a stop codon is encountered

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94
Q

order of sites in the ribosome during translation

A

APE
A-site to P-site to E-site

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95
Q

post-translational modifications

A

polypeptide chain undergoes modifications to become fully functional.
can include cleavage or addition

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96
Q

cleavage

A

certain amino acids sequences are removed from the chain

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97
Q

addition

A

biomolecules are added to the peptide

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98
Q

common addition processes

A

phosphorylation, carboxylation, glycosylation, prenylation

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99
Q

phosphorylation

A

addition of phosphate group

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100
Q

carboxylation

A

addition of carboxylic acid groups

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101
Q

glycosylation

A

addition of oligosaccharides (sugars), completed in golgi body

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102
Q

preenylation

A

addition of lipid groups, allowing for incorporation of the protein into membranes

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103
Q

eukaryotic transcription

A

occurs in the nucleus.
monocistronic mRNA transcripts

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104
Q

prokaryotic transcription

A

occurs in the cytoplasm.
posttransciptional modification cannot occur.
polycistronic mRNA transcipts

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105
Q

proteins

A

formed by the culmination of transcription & translation, proteins are functional units of life. vast majority of all cellular functions are completed by proteins

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106
Q

4 levels of protein structure

A

primary, secondary, tertiary, and quarternary

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107
Q

primary structure protein

A

sequence of amino acids listed from N-terminus to the C-terminus. peptide bonds are central to protein’s primary structure

108
Q

secondary structure protein

A

local 3D structure of neighboring amino acids. most common ones are alpha helices and beta sheets.
the stability relies on H bond formation b/w amino acid side chains

109
Q

tertiary structure of protein

A

folding of polypeptide forming the 3D structure of the entire protein.
folding is assisted by chaperones.
relies on hydrophobic & hydophillic interactions of amino acid side groups and disulfide bonds

110
Q

chaperones

A

cellular proteins that stabilize transition states in the folding process

111
Q

quaternary structure of proteins

A

combining of polypeptides to form a complete protein complex.
stability relies on both hydrophobic and hydrophillic interactions and disulfide bonds.
Not all proteins have a quaternary structure.

112
Q

2 major categories of proteins

A

enzymatic or non-enzymatic

113
Q

non-enzymatic categories

A

structural proteins or binding proteins

114
Q

structural proteins

A

function to fix cellular components in place or move cellular components to needed location.
like cytoskeleton or motor proteins

115
Q

binding proteins

A

serve to transport, attach, or sequester molecules by directly adhering to the molecule

116
Q

ezymes

A

proteins w/ catalytic function

117
Q

catalyst

A

any substance that affects the rate of a chemical reaction while remaining unchanged or being regenerated as a product

118
Q

conjugated proteins

A

covalently bond to other groups that often serve as coenzymes of cofactors

119
Q

substrate

A

molecule that the enzyme acts on

120
Q

active site

A

area on which substrate binds on each enzyme

121
Q

most enzyme-catalyzed reactions are reversible

A

product synthesized by an enzyme can be reversed by the same enzyme

122
Q

characteristics of enzymes

A
  • do not alter eq. constant
  • not consumed in the reaction
  • lower activation energy
  • pH & temp sensitive
123
Q

lock and key theory

A

holds that the spatial structure of an enzymes active site is exactly complementary to the spatial structure of its substrate

124
Q

induced fit theory

A

the active site has flexibility of shape

125
Q

enzyme action and reaction rate depends on

A

temperature, pH, and the concentration of the enzyme & substrate

126
Q

competitive inhibition

A

if a similar molecule is present in a concentration comparable to the concentration of the substrate, it will compete with the substrate for binding sites on the enzyme & interfere w/ enzyme activity

127
Q

noncompetitive inhibitor

A

a substance that binds to an enzyme at a site other than the active site

128
Q

allosteric site

A
  • “other site or structure”
  • resulting in a nonfunctional active site
  • allosteric inhibition
129
Q

ligases

A

catalyze addition or synthesis reactions, generally b/w large similar molecules and often require ATP.
most likely to be encountered in nucleic acid synthesis and repair.
help in joining (ligating) 2 molecules by forming chemical bonds

130
Q

isomerases

A

catalyze the rearrangement of bonds w/in a molecule.
catalyze reactions b/w stereoisomers as well as constitutional isomers

131
Q

lyases

A

catalyze the cleavage of a single molecule into 2 products

132
Q

synthases

A

synthesis of 2 small molecules into a single molecule by catalyzed by lyase

133
Q

hydrolases

A

catalyze the breaking of a compound into 2 molecules using the addition of water.
common one is phosphatase

134
Q

phosphatase

A

cleaves a phosphate group from another molecule

135
Q

peptidases

A

break down proteins

136
Q

nucleases

A

break down nucleic acids

137
Q

lipases

A

break down lipids

138
Q

oxidoreductases

A

catalyze oxidation reduction reactions - transfer of electrons b/w bio molecules.
often have a cofactor that acts as an electron carrier like NAD+ or NADP+.
reductant = electron donor
oxidant = electron acceptor

139
Q

oxidase

A

enzyme in which oxygen is the final electron acceptor

140
Q

transferases

A

catalyze the movement of a functional group from one molecule to another

141
Q

kinases

A

catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group, generally from atp to another molecule

142
Q

metabolism

A

sum of all chemical reactions that occur in the body

143
Q

catabolic reactions

A

break down chemicals & release energy

144
Q

anabolic reactions

A

synthesize chemicals and require energy

145
Q

cellular respiration

A

describes the biochemical conversion of chemical energy stored in molecular bonds into usable energy (ATP), a catabolic process

146
Q

2 major pathways of cellular respiration

A

aerobic & anerobic

147
Q

aerobic respiration

A

occurs in the presence of oxygen

148
Q

anerobic respiration

A

occurs in the absence of oxygen

149
Q

external respiration

A

refers to the inhaling & exhaling of air into and out of the lungs as well as the exchange of gas b/w alveoli and the blood

150
Q

internal respiration

A

refers to exchange of gas b/w individual cells and the extracellular fluid

151
Q

if energy is released during a reaction …

A

… then the products must have less potential energy than reactants

152
Q

why are carbohydrates and fats favored fuel molecules?

A

due to their high # of energy rich C-H bonds

153
Q

how does cellular respiration release energy

A

in a series of small steps
allows the cell to capture energy for use

154
Q

what does the degradation of glucose by oxidation begin with?

A

glycolysis

155
Q

2 separate pathways of glucose catabolism

A

aerobic and anerobic

156
Q

glycolysis

A

“sugar breaking”
series of reactions that lead to the oxidative breakdown of glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvate, the production of ATP, and the reduction of NAD+ and NADH

157
Q

where does glycolysis occur?

A

the cytoplasm

158
Q

early investment stage of glycolysis

A

steps 1-3
2 ATPs are used to add 2 phosphate groups to glucose
produces fructose 1,6-biphosphate
completed by kinases

159
Q

cleavage stage of glycolysis

A

step 4
splits fructose 1,6-biphosphate into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (PGAL) and dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)
DHAP is then isomerized to form a second PGAL

160
Q

energy payout stage of glycolysis

A

steps 5-9
results in the production of ATP
these steps occur twice per glucose molecule
PGAL is converted to pyruvate resulting in the reduction of NAD+ to NADH (catalyzed by a dehydrogenase) and the production of 2 ATPs (catalyzed by kinases)

161
Q

from one molecule of glucose (6C) …

A

2 molecules of pyruvate (3C) are obtained

162
Q

substrate level phosphorylation

A

ATP synthesis is directly coupled with the oxidation of glucose w/out participation of an intermediate molecule such as NADH or FADH2

163
Q

oxidative phosphorylation

A

requires an intermediate electron carrier such as NADH or FADH2

164
Q

pyruvate degradation under anaerobic conditions

A

pyruvate is reduced during the process of fermentation

165
Q

pyruvate degradation under aerobic conditions

A

pyruvate is further oxidized during cellular respiration in the mitochondria

166
Q

alcohol fermentation

A

occurs in yeast and some bacteria
pyruvate produces in glycolysis is converted to ethanol
NAD+ is regenerated and glycolysis can continue

167
Q

lactic acid fermentation

A

occurs in certain fungi, bacteria, and in human muscle cells during strenuous activity

pyruvate generated is reduced to lactic acid

NAD+ is regenerated when pyruvate is reduced

168
Q

aerobic respiration can yield …

A

36-38 ATP

169
Q

anaerobic respiration yields …

A

2 ATP

170
Q

where do aerobic respiration stages occur?

A

eukaryotes: mitochondria
prokaryotes: cytoplasm

171
Q

pyruvate decarboxylation

A

stage of aerobic respiration
produces Acetyl-CoA

172
Q

citric acid cycle (aka krebs cycle)

A

stage of aerobic respiration
Acetyl-CoA undergoes a cycle of reactions producing electron carriers (NADH, FADH2) and regenerating oxaloacatate, allowing the cycle to repeat

173
Q

electron transport chain

A

stage of aerobic respiration
located in mitochondrial membrane, which transports protons against their concentration gradient into the inter-membrane space

174
Q

cytochromes

A

electron carriers that resemble hemoglobin in the structure of their active site

most of the molecules in the electron transport chain

175
Q

where is the electron transport chain located?

A

inside of the inner mitochondrial membrane

176
Q

proton gradient

A

the coupling agent for oxidation of NADH & FADH2 to the phosphorylation of ADP across the inner mitochondrial membrane

177
Q

oxidative phosphorylation

A

the coupling of the oxidation of NADH and FADH2 with the phosphorylation of ADP

178
Q

net total amount of ATP produced per molecule of glucose

A

number of ATP produced by substrate level phosphorylation + the number of ATP produced by oxidative phosphorylation

179
Q

substrate level phosphorylation

A

4 total ATP produced

2 ATP from glycolysis
1 ATP from each turn of the citric acid cycle

180
Q

oxidative phosphorylation

A

32 ATP produced
(34 for prokaryotes)

181
Q

preferential order of use of alternate energy sources

A

other carbohydrates
fats
proteins

182
Q

how are alternate energy sources converted?

A

first converted to either glucose or glucose intermediaries, which can then be degraded in the glycolytic pathway and citric acid cycle

183
Q

fats

A

molecules stored in adipose tissue in the form of triglycerides

184
Q

conversion of fats when necessary

A

hydrolyzed by lipases to fatty acids and glycerol & are carried to the blood to other tissues for oxidation

185
Q

which high energy compound used in cellular respiration yields the greatest # of ATP per gram?

A

fats

makes them extremely efficient energy storage molecules

186
Q

transamination reaction

A

proteins lose an amino group to form an a-keto acid

187
Q

what are most carbon atoms from most amino acids converted into?

A

acetyl-CoA, pyruvate, or one intermediates of the citric acid cycle

188
Q

when the intermediaries enter their respective pathways, what are cells able to produce?

A

fatty acids, glucose, or energy in the form of ATP

189
Q

oxidative deamination

A

removes an ammonia molecule directly from the amino acid

190
Q

ammonia

A

toxic substance in vertebrates

191
Q

photosynthesis

A

plants use it to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen

involves the reduction of CO2 to carbohydrate accompanied by release of oxygen from water

192
Q

where does photosynthesis takes place?

A

in the chloroplast

193
Q

photosynthesis light reactions (aka photolysis reactions)

A

require sunlight

absorption of a photon of light by a chlorophyll molecule which excites electrons to a higher energy level

can flow along cyclic electron flow or noncyclic electron flow

194
Q

photosynthesis dark reactions

A

do not require sunlight

195
Q

cyclic electron flow

A

excited electrons of P700 move along a chain of electron carriers. a series of redox reactions ultimately returns the electrons to P700

uses electron transpot chain, a proton gradient, and ATP synthase to produce ATP from ADP

196
Q

cyclic photophosphorylation

A

process used to produce ATP from ADP

197
Q

noncyclic electron flow

A

photons of light excite electrons in P700 in photosystem I, and then electrons are transferred to the electron acceptor NADP+

198
Q

dark reactions

A

use ATP and NADPH produced by light reactions to reduce CO2 to carbohydrates

199
Q

genetics

A

study of how traits are inherited from one generation to the next

200
Q

gene

A

basic unit of heredity

composed of DNA and are located on chromosomes

201
Q

alleles

A

alternative form of a gene that exists in multiple forms

202
Q

genotype

A

genetic makeup of an individual

203
Q

phenotype

A

physical manifestation of the genetic makeup

204
Q

Mendel’s 4 principles of inheritance

A
  1. genes exist in alternative forms. a gene controls a specific trait in an organism
  2. an organism has 2 alleles for each inherited trait, one inherited from each parent.
  3. the 2 alleles segregate during meiosis, resulting in gametes that carry only one allele for any given individual trait
  4. if 2 alleles in an individual org are different, only 1 will be fully expressed. a dominant allele only requires one copy present to be expressed whereas a recessive allele must have 2 copies present to be expressed.
205
Q

homozygous

A

contain 2 copies of the same allele

206
Q

heterozygous

A

carry 2 different alleles

207
Q

mendel’s law of dominance

A

dominant allele is expressed in the phenotype

208
Q

monohybrid cross

A

only one trait is being studied in a particular mating

209
Q

parental or P generation

A

the individuals being crossed

210
Q

filial or F generations

A

the progeny generations

each generation is numbered sequentially

211
Q

testcross

A

a dx tool used to determine the genotype of an organism

212
Q

mendel’s law of independent assortment

A

the alleles of two (or more) different genes get sorted into gametes independently of one another

213
Q

crossing over

A

exchanges info b/w chromosomes and may break the linkage of certain patterns

214
Q

codominance

A

occurs when multiple alleles exist for a given gene and more than one of them is dominant

both alleles in the genotype are expressed at the same time w/out a blending of phenotype

215
Q

incomplete dominance

A

the phenotype expressed is a blend of both genotypes

216
Q

sex linked

A

genes located on the X or Y chromosome

217
Q

nondisjunction

A

failure of homologous chromosomes to separate properly during meiosis I or the failure of sister chromatids to separate properly during meiosis II

218
Q

trisomy

A

zygote having 3 copies of chromosome

down syndrome - trisomy 21

219
Q

monosomy

A

zygote having a single copy of chromosome

turner’s syndrome - only viable monosomy

220
Q

mutations

A

changes in the genetic information coded in the DNA of a cell

221
Q

mutations in somatic cells

A

can lead to tumors

222
Q

mutations in sex cells

A

will be passed to offspring

223
Q

mutagenic agents

A

induce mutations

224
Q

point mutation

A

a nucleic acid is replaced by another nucleic acid

225
Q

codon

A

sequence of 3 nucleotides that determines the identity of the amino acid

226
Q

a silent mutation

A

the new codon may code for the same amino acid

no change in the resulting protein

227
Q

a missense mutation

A

the new codon may code for a different amino acid

may lead to a problem with the resulting protein, depending on the role of that amino acid

228
Q

a nonsense mutation

A

the new codon may be a stop codon

often lethal or severely inhibit the functioning of the protein

229
Q

frameshift mutation

A

nucleic acids are deleted or inserted into the genome sequence

frequently is lethal

230
Q

bacterial genome

A

consists of a single circular chromosome located in the nucleoid region of the cell

231
Q

plasmids

A

smaller circular rings of DNA that contain accessory genes

232
Q

episomes

A

plasmids that are capable of integration into the bacterial genome

233
Q

replication of bacterial chromosome

A

begins at a unique origin & proceeds in both directions simultaneously

DNA is synthesized in the 5’ to 3’ direction

234
Q

3 mechanisms of bacteria for increasing the genetic variation

A

transformation
conjugation
transduction

235
Q

binary fission

A

how bacterial cells reproduce

an asexual process

236
Q

transformation

A

process by which a foreign chromosome fragment (plasmid) is incorporated into the bacterial chromosome via recombination, creating new inheritable genetic combos

237
Q

conjugation

A

sexual mating in bacteria

transfer of genetic material b/w 2 bacterial temporarily joined

genetic material is transferred from male to female

238
Q

F factor

A

in e coli

best studied sex factor

239
Q

Hfr cells

A

high frequency of recombination

240
Q

bacteriophage

A

a virus that infects its host bacterium by attaching to the bacterium, boring a hole thru a bacterial cell wall, and injecting its viral DNA while its protein coat remains attached to the cell wall

241
Q

transduction

A

when fragments of the bacterial chromosome become packaged into the viral progeny produced during such a viral infection

closer 2 genes are to one another on a chromosome, the more likely they will be to transduce together

242
Q

recombination

A

occurs when linked genes are separated

occurs by breakage & rearrangement of adjacent regions of DNA when organisms are carrying different genes or alleles for the same traits are crossed

243
Q

operator

A

the sequence of nontranscribable DNA that is the repressor binding site

244
Q

promoter

A

the noncoding sequence of DNA that serves as the initial binding site of the RNA polymerase

245
Q

regulator gene

A

codes for the synthesis of a repressor molecule that binds to the operator & blocks RNA polymerase from transcribing structural genes

246
Q

inducible systems

A

those that require the presence of a substance, called an inducer, for transcription to occur

247
Q

repressible systems

A

in a constant state of transcription unless corepresssor is present to inhibit transcription

248
Q

pedigrees

A

tools used by geneticists to track 1 phenotype in a family across generations

males are squares, females are circles

affected are shaded in, unaffected are not

249
Q

autosomal recessive

A

a person will only be affected if he or she possesses 2 copies of the recessive allele (homozygous recessive)

can skip generations

250
Q

autosomal dominant

A

a person will be affected if he or she possesses one or more copies of the dominant allele (heterozygous or homozygous dominant)

will appear in every generation

251
Q

evolution

A

change in genetic makeup of a population with time

252
Q

acquired characteristics

A

any useful characteristic acquired in 1 generation was thought to be transmitted to the next

has been disproven by modern genetics

253
Q

fitness

A

ability to survive and reproduce

254
Q

natural selection

A

Darwin’s theory

nature selects the best set of parents for the next generation

255
Q

overpopulation

A

more offspring are produced than can survive

food, air, light, and space are insufficient to support the entire population

256
Q

variations

A

offspring naturally show differences in their characteristics compared to those of their parents

257
Q

competition

A

developing population must compete for the necessities of life

many young must die, and the # of adults in the population generally remains constant from generation to generation

258
Q

inheritance of the variations

A

the individuals that survive live to adulthood to reproduce and thus transmit these favorable variations or adaptations to their offspring

favored genes gradually dominate the gene pool

259
Q

evolution of new species

A

the favorable changes are perpetuated in the species

results in significant changes in the gene pool that we can say a new species has evolved

changes perpetuated or selected for by environmental conditions

260
Q

speciation

A

evolution of new species

261
Q

demes

A

before speciation
formation of small, local populations w/in a species

if they become isolated, speciation can occur

262
Q

phylogeny

A

evolutionary history

263
Q

clade

A

all descendants from the common ancestor

264
Q

convergent evolution

A

2 species from different ancestors develop similar traits

265
Q

parallel evolution

A

similar to convergent evolution
occurs when a more recent ancestor can be identified

266
Q
A

OAT (4 decks)

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