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HESI Review > Biology > Flashcards

Biology Flashcards

1
Q

Hierarchical organizational system for nomenclature order

A

Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species

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2
Q

Scientific method

A

Observation
Hypothesis
Experiment
Scientific process

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3
Q

Carbohydrates are

A

Polymers (sugars)

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4
Q

What are the functions of carbohydrates

A

Storage
Structure
Energy

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5
Q

What is the backbone of carbohydrates

A

DNA and RNA

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6
Q

Lipids are better known as

A

Fats

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7
Q

Lipids are specifically

A

Fatty acids
Phospholipids
Steroids

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8
Q

What categories are fatty acids grouped in?

A

Saturated fats
Unsaturated fats

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9
Q

Saturated fats contain

A

No double bonds in their hydrocarbon tail

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10
Q

Unsaturated fats contain

A

One or more double bonds

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11
Q

Saturated fats are

A

Solids
Cardiovascular problems are likely associated with diets containing high quantities of saturated fats

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12
Q

Unsaturated fats are

A

Liquids at room temperature

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13
Q

Phospholipids consist of

A

Two fatty acids of varying length bonded to a phosphate group

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14
Q

How is the phosphate group in water

A

It is charged and, therefore, polar and soluble in water

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15
Q

The hydrocarbon tail in fatty acids are

A

No polar and non-soluble in water

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16
Q

What is the significant contributor to proteins

A

Cellular function

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17
Q

DNA

A

A unique molecule specific to a particular organism and contains the code that is necessary for replication

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18
Q

RNA

A

Used in transfer of information from DNA to protein level and as a messenger in most species of the genetic code

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19
Q

Metabolism

A

The sum of all chemical reactions that occur in an organism

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20
Q

Metabolic pathways

A

In a cell, reactions take pace in a series of steps, progressing from a standpoint of high energy to low energy. All reactions are catalyzed by the use of enzymes

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21
Q

What is the fundamental unit of biology

A

The cell

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22
Q

What are the 2 types of cells

A

Prokaryotic
Eukaryotic

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23
Q

What do prokaryotic cells lack

A

Lack a defined nucleus and do not contain membrane-bound organelles

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24
Q

Eukaryotic cells

A

Have a membrane-enclosed nucleus and a series of membrane-bound organelles that carry out the functions of the cell
More complex of the 2 cells

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25
Q

Chromosomes

A

Contains the DNA of the cellin organized masses

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26
Q

Ribosomes

A

Organelles that read the RNA produced in the nucleus and translate the genetic instructions to produce proteins.

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27
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum

A

Membranousorganelle found attached to the nuclear membrane and consists of 2 continuous parts

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28
Q

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

A

Its responsible for protein synthesisand membrane production

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29
Q

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A

Lacks ribosomes
It functions in the detoxification and metabolism of multiple molecules

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30
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

Transports proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum throughout the cell

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31
Q

Lysosomes

A

Intracellular digestion takes place
Packed with hydrolytic enzymes
Can hydrolyze proteins, fats, sugars,and nucleic acids
Normally contain anacidio environment (around ph 4.5)

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32
Q

Vacuoles

A

Membrane-enclosed structures

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33
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Uptake food through the cell membrane, creating a food vacuole

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34
Q

Functions for plant cells that have a central vacuole

A

Storage
Waste disposal
Protection
Hydrolysis

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35
Q

Mitochondria

A

Found in eukaryotic cells
The site of cellular respiration

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36
Q

Chloroplasts

A

Found in plants
The site of photosynthesis

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37
Q

What is the most important component of acell

A

Cellular membrane

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38
Q

Functions of cellular membrane

A

Protection
Communication
Passage of substances into and out of the cell

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39
Q

Cellular membrane

A

Consists of a bilayer of phospholipids with proteins, cholesterol, and glycoproteins peppered throughout

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40
Q

Energy currency of the cell

A

ATP

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41
Q

NADH

A

Acts as a reducing agent and is a vehicle of stored energy
Used as a precursor to produce greater amounts of ATP in the final steps of respiration

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42
Q

Glycolysis

A

First step in the metabolism of food to cellular energy is the conversion of glucose to pyruvate

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43
Q

Glycolysis

A

Takes place in the cytosol of the cell and produces two molecules of ATP, private, and NADH each

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44
Q

Citric acid cycle

A

Also called the krebs cycle
In step two, pyruvate is transported into a mitochondria and used in the first of a series of reactions
Takes place in the matrix of the mitochondrion
For a single consumed glucose molecule, two ATP molecules, six molecules of Carbon dioxide, and six NADH molecules are produced

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45
Q

Electron transport chain

A

The third step begins with the oxidation of the NADH molecules to produce oxygen and finally to produce water in a series of steps

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46
Q

Electron transport chain

A

For every glucose molecule, 28 to 32 ATP molecules can be produced.
This conversion resultsin overall ATP production numbers of 32 to 36 ATP molecules for every glucose molecule consumed

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47
Q

Photosynthesis

A

It began with a glucose molecule and resulted in a large production of energy in the form of ATP. A precursor to the glucose molecule is produced in a process called

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48
Q

Cells reproduce by 3 different processes, all of which fall into two categories:

A

Asexual and sexual reproduction

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49
Q

What are the 2 types of asexual reproduction

A

Binary fission and mitosis

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50
Q

Involves bacterial cell
The chromosome binds to the plasma membrane where it replicates.
Then as the cell grows, it pinches in two, producing two identical cells

A

Binary fission

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51
Q

This process of cell division occurs in 5 stages
The stages are prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase

A

Mitosis

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52
Q

This process of cell division occurs in five stages before pinching in two in a process called

A

Cytokinesis

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53
Q

During what stage of mitosis does the chromosomes are visibility separate, and each duplicated chromosome has two noticeable sister chromatids.

A

Prophase

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54
Q

The nuclear envelop begins to disappear, and the chromosomes begin to attach to the spindle that is forming along the axis of the cell

A

Prometaphase

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55
Q

All the chromosomes align along the center of the cell

A

Metaphase

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56
Q

Chromosomes start to separate, and the chromatids are considered separate chromosomes

A

Anaphase

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57
Q

Chromosomes gather on either side of the now separating cell

A

Telophase

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58
Q

The cell pinches in two, forming two separate identical cells

A

Cytokinesis

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59
Q

Two cells contribute genetic material, resulting in significantly greater variation. These two cells find and fertilize each other randomly, making it virtually impossible for cells to be alike

A

Sexual reproduction

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60
Q

The process that determines how reproductive cells divide in a sexually reproducing organism

A

Meiosis

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61
Q

Meiosis consists of two distinct stages:
Result in 4 daughter cells

A

Meiosis 1 and meiosis 2

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62
Q

Each of these daughter cells contains half as many chromosomes as the parent. Preceding these events is a period called:

A

Interphase

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63
Q

During this phase, the chromosomes are duplicated and the cell prepares for division

A

Interphase

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64
Q

There are two alternative versions of a gene called:

A

Alleles

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65
Q

Two types of of genes are

A

Dominant and recessive

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66
Q

If both of the alleles are the same type, the gene is

A

Homozygous

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67
Q

If the genes are different types, the organism is said to be:

A

Heterozygous

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68
Q

This is the genetic material of a cell and is the vehicle of inheritance

A

DNA

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69
Q

Watson and Crick describe this structure. They described a double helical structure that contains the four nitrogenous bases adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine.

A

DNA

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70
Q

Each gene along a strand of DNA is a template for protein synthesis

A

Transcription

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71
Q

A RNA strand, complementary to the original strand of DNA, is produced

A

Messenger RNA
mRNA

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72
Q

MRNA functions as a messenger from the original DNA helix in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytosol or on the rough ER. Here, the ribosome acts as the site of what?

A

Translation

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73
Q

The mRNA slides through the ribosome. Every group of three bases along the stretch of RNA is called a

A

Codon

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74
Q

Carries a specific amino acid. It binds to the ribosome when its codon is sliding through the ribosome.

A

Transfer RNA
tRNA

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75
Q

The chain is released into the cytoplasm and the protein folds onto itself and forms its complete conformation

A

Stop codon

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76
Q

Provides a baseline reference point for areas of the body. The body is erect, the feet are slightly apart, the head is held high, the arms are at the side, and the palms of the hands are facing forward.

A

Anatomical position

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77
Q

Divides the body into right and left sides

A

Sagittal

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78
Q

Divides the body into equal right and left halves

A

Midsagittal

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79
Q

Divides the body into anterior and posterior sections

A

Frontal
Coronal

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80
Q

Divides the body into superior and inferior sections

A

Transverse
Horizontal

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81
Q

Superior

A

Above

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82
Q

Inferior

A

Below

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83
Q

Anterior

A

Front

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84
Q

Posterior

A

Toward the back

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85
Q

Medial

A

Toward the midline

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86
Q

Proximal

A

Closer to the point of attachment of the extremity of the trunk

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87
Q

Distal

A

Farther away from the point of attachment of the extremity of the trunk

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88
Q

Superficial

A

Closer to or at the surface of the body

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89
Q

Deep

A

Further into the body

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90
Q

Includes the cranial and spinal cavity

A

Dorsal Cavity

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91
Q

Includes the thoracic and a domino pelvic cavities

A

Ventral cavity

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92
Q

The study of cells

A

Cytology

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93
Q

The basic unit of life, and the building block of tissues and organs

A

Cell

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94
Q

What are the major parts of a cell?

A

Plasma membrance, cytoplasm, nucleus, and organelles

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95
Q

What synthesizes proteins

A

Ribosomes

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96
Q

What has ribosomes for synthesizing proteins

A

Rough ER

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97
Q

What synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates

A

Smooth ER

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98
Q

What packages substances from the ER

A

Golgi apparatus

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99
Q

What synthesizes ATP and is the powerhouse of cells

A

Mitochondria

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100
Q

What is the body’s energy molecule

A

ATP

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101
Q

What digests molecules such as pathogens and worn out cell parts

A

Lysosomes

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102
Q

What is necessary for growth and repair. In this process of cell division, DNA is duplicated and distributed evenly to two identical daughter cells

A

Mitosis

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103
Q

The special cell division that takes place in the gonads, which are the ovaries and testes

A

Meiosis

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104
Q

The study of tissues

A

Histology

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105
Q

What is a group of cells that act together to perform specific functions

A

Tissues

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106
Q

What are the 4 types of tissues

A

Epithelial
Muscle
Connective
Nervous

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107
Q

This type of tissue covers, lines, and protects the body, and its internal organs

A

Epithelial

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108
Q

This is the most abundant tissue in the body. It forms the framework of the body, providing support and structure for the organs. Includes fibrous, bone, cartilage, and blood

A

Connective tissue

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109
Q

What types of tissues are fibrous tissue

A

Areolar
Adipose
Reticular
Dense

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110
Q

Is composed of neurons, which initiate and conduct nerve impulses

A

Nervous tissue

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111
Q

Initiate and conduct nerve impulses and connective tissue cells
Support the neurons

A

Neuroglia

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112
Q

Has the ability to contract or shorten, as well as to lengthen.Classified as voluntary or involuntary

A

Muscle tissue

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113
Q

What types of tissue are voluntary in muscle tissue

A

Skeletal muscle

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114
Q

What types of tissue are involuntary in muscle tissue

A

Smooth
Cardiac

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115
Q

Consists of the skin and its structures and organs such as hair, nails, and sensory receptors

A

Integumentary system

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116
Q

The outermost protective layer made of dead, keratinized epithelial cells

A

Epidermis

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117
Q

The underlying layer of connective tissue with blood vessels, nerve endings, and the associated skin structures.

A

Dermis

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118
Q

The dermis rests on the subcutaneous tissue. It connects the skin to the underlying muscles and bones

A

Hypodermis
Superficial fascia

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119
Q

Layers of the epidermis from superficial to deep

A

Stratum corneum
Stratum lucidum
Stratum granulisum
Stratum spinosum
Stratum germinativum/ stratum basale

120
Q

Waterproofs the skin

A

Keratin

121
Q

produce the pigment melanin, which darkens the skin to protect against radiation from the sun

A

Melanocytes

122
Q

Are most widely distributed and regulate body temperature by releasing a watery secretion that evaporates from the surface of the skin

A

Eccrine sweat glands

123
Q

Mainly found in the axilla and inguinal regions. This sweat is thicker because it contains bots of cytoplasm from the secreting cells . This cell debris attracts bacteria, and the presence of the bacteria on the skin results in body odor

A

Apocrine sweat glands

124
Q

Releases an oily secretion called sebum through hair follicles, it lubricates the skin and prevents drying. These glands are susceptible to becoming clogged and attracting bacteria, particularly during adolescence, resulting in acne.

A

Sebaceous glands

125
Q

Functions of the skeletal system are

A

Support
Movement
Blood cell formation (hemopoiesis)
Protection of internal organs
Provision of muscle attachment sites
Mineral storage, especially calcium and phosphorus

126
Q

What are the two types of bone tissue

A

Compact
Spongy

127
Q

Compact bone tissue

A

Dense tissue

128
Q

Spongy bone tissue

A

Cancellous

129
Q

Forms the outer layer of the all bones

A

Compact bone

130
Q

Contains a latticework of plates of bone with spaces in between; this latticework is called trabeculae

A

Spongy bone

131
Q

Fills the spaces and it the site of hemopoiesis

A

Red bone marrow

132
Q

Cells that form bone tissue

A

Osteoblasts

133
Q

They become fixed in the dense bone matrix, then stop dividing but continue to maintain bone tissue

A

Osteocytes

134
Q

break down bone tissue

A

Osteoclasts

135
Q

What bones are classified by shape

A

Long
Short
Flat
Sesamoid
Irregular

136
Q

Has an epiphysis at each end of bone. Is the site of bone growth in length

A

Long bone

137
Q

Shaft of long bone

A

Diaphysis

138
Q

Composed mainly of compact bone surrounding a hollow center
Filled with yellow marrow or fat

A

Medullary cavity

139
Q

Consists of the skull, vertebral column, 12 pairs of ribs, and sternum

A

Axial skeleton

140
Q

Includes the should and hip girdles, and the extremities

A

Appendicular skeleton

141
Q

Produce movement by contracting in response to nervous stimulation

A

Muscles

142
Q

Each muscle cell, or ,uncle fiber, consists of myofibrils divided into segments called

A

Sarcomeres

143
Q

What contains the myofilament actin, a thin protein, and myosin, a thick protein

A

Sacromeres

144
Q

The myosin binds to the actin, and pulls it toward the center of the sarcomere

A

Sliding filament model

145
Q

What is it called when a muscle performs a given movement

A

Agonist
Prime mover

146
Q

What is it called when a muscle produces the opposite movement of the agonist or prime mover?

A

Antagonist

147
Q

Other muscles that work in cooperation with the prime mover are called

A

Synergists

148
Q

Reduces the angle at a joint

A

Flexor

149
Q

Increase the angle of a joint

A

Extensors

150
Q

Draw a limb away from the midline

A

Abductors

151
Q

Return the limb back toward the body

A

Adductors

152
Q

Consists of the brain, spinal cords, and the nerves

A

Nervous system

153
Q

Comprises the spinal cord and brain

A

CNS
Central nervous system

154
Q

Composed of all other nerves in the body, namely cranial nerves and peripheral nerves.

A

PNS

155
Q

The PNS is further divided into the

A

Somatic nervous system

156
Q

Involves the skin, muscles, bones, and joints

A

Somatic nervous system

157
Q

Controls the functions such as digestion, heart rate, blood pressure, and urination

A

Autonomic nervous system

158
Q

The two divisions of the autonomic system are the

A

Parasympathetic division
Sympathetic division

159
Q

Rest and digest

A

Parasympathetic system

160
Q

Fight or flight

A

Sympathetic system

161
Q

Enables perception (seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, and touching) of many of the changes that take place in the external and internal environments, and response to those changes
Responsible for thinking, reasoning, remembering, and carrying out other abstract activities.
Initiates body movements by skeletal muscles by supplying them with nerve impulses that cause contraction
Works closely with the endocrine glands, correlating and integrating body functions such as digestion and reproduction

A

The nervous system

162
Q

The functional units of the nervous system

A

Neurons
Nerve cells

163
Q

The main parts of a neuron are

A

Axon
Cell body
Dendrites

164
Q

What transmit the impulse toward the cell body

A

Dendrites

165
Q

What transmits the impulse away from the cell body

A

Axons

166
Q

What transmits nerve impulses toward the CNS

A

Sensory neurons (afferent)

167
Q

What transmits nerve impulse away from the CNS toward the effector organs such as muscles, glands, and digestive organs

A

Motor neurons (efferent)

168
Q

What are the four main parts of the brain

A

Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Diencephalon
Brainstem

169
Q

Associated with sensory interpretation, movement, thinking, and personality

A

Cerebrum

170
Q

Responsible for muscular coordination

A

Cerebellum

171
Q

Contains the thalamus, which routes incoming sensory information to the appropriate part of the cerebrum, and the hypothalamus

A

Diencephalon

172
Q

Monitors many of the conditions of the body, controls the autonomic nervous system, and interacts with the endocrine system

A

Hypothalamus

173
Q

Controls many vital functions such as respiration and heart rate

A

Brainstem

174
Q

What is approximately 18 inches long and extends from the Brainstem to the first or second lumbar vertebra (L1 or L2)
31 pairs of spinal nerves exit this

A

Spinal cord

175
Q

A quick, automatic response to a stimulus
Nerve impulses travel through the spinal cord only and do not reach the brain

A

Reflex
Simple spinal reflex

176
Q

Has more long-lasting and widespread effects than the nervous system
Plays important roles in growth and sexual maturation.

A

Endocrine system

177
Q

Governs the pituitary and is in turn controlled by the feedback of hormones in the blood as well as other conditions in the body

A

Hypothalamus

178
Q

Widely distributed
Grouped together as a system because the main function of each gland is the production of hormones

A

Endocrine glands

179
Q

These are chemical messengers that control the growth, differentiation, and metabolism of specific target cells

A

Hormones

180
Q

The two major groups of hormones are

A

Steroid and nonsteroid hormones

181
Q

These enter the target cells and have a direct effect on the DNA in the nucleus

A

Steroid hormones

182
Q

These hormones remain at the cell surface and act through a second messenger, usually a substance called adenosine monophosphate, AMP

A

Nonsteroid hormones

183
Q

What affects cell activity by altering the rate of photo synthesis

A

Hormones

184
Q

What is attached to the hypothalamus by a stalk called infundibulum

A

Pituitary gland

185
Q

The pituitary gland had 2 major portions called

A

Anterior lobe (adenohypophysis)
Posterior lobe (neurohypophysis)

186
Q

Hormones also called tropic hormones
Act mainly on other endocrine glands
Include STH or GH, ACTH, TSH, FSH, LH

A

Adenohypophysis
Anterior lobe of pituitary gland

187
Q

Stimulates growth in all organs

A

STH
GH

188
Q

Stimulates secretion of adrenal cortex hormones

A

ACTH

189
Q

Stimulates secretion of thyroid hormones

A

TSH

190
Q

Stimulates secretion of ovarian follicles and secretion of estrogens in females; stimulates sperm production in males

A

FSH

191
Q

Triggers ovulation in females; stimulates secretion of testosterone in males

A

LH

192
Q

Hormones released from the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland are

A

Oxytocin
ADH

193
Q

Stimulates uterine contractions during labor; stimulates milky ejection from the mammary glands; also known as the bonding hormone

A

Oxytocin

194
Q

Stimulates retention of water by the kidneys

A

ADH

195
Q

Secretes thyroid hormones which regulate metabolism, and calcitonin which decreases blood calcium levels

A

Thyroid gland

196
Q

Secrete parathyroid hormone, which increases blood calcium levels

A

Parathyroid glands

197
Q

Cortex secrets cortisol, medulla secretes adrenaline, which intensifies the sympathetic response

A

Adrenal glands

198
Q

Secretes insulin, which decreases blood glucose levels, and glucagon, which increase blood glucose levels

A

Pancreas

199
Q

Ovaries secrete estrogen, which develop and maintain female sexual characteristics and progesterone, which maintains pregnancy; testes secret testosterone, which develops and maintains male sexual characteristics

A

Gonads

200
Q

Sometimes called the “stress hormone”
Reduces inflammation
Raises blood sugar levels
Inhibits the release of histamine during long-term stress

A

Cortisol

201
Q

What transports oxygen, nutrients, enzymes, and hormones to body cells and carries away carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes.

A

Blood

202
Q

Whole blood consists of what?

A

55% plasma (liquid portion)
45% formed elements (cells and cell fragments)

203
Q

Erythrocytes

A

Red blood cells

204
Q

Leukocytes

A

White blood cells

205
Q

Thrombocytes

A

Platelets

206
Q

All the formed elements are produced from stem cells in what?

A

Red bone marrow

207
Q

What is erythrocytes functions

A

Transports oxygen

208
Q

Made of protein and iron

A

Hemoglobin

209
Q

Distinguished on the basis on size, appearance of the nucleus, staining properties, and presence or absence of visible cytoplasmic granules

A

Leukocytes

210
Q

Agranular leukocytes are

A

Neutrophils
Basophils
Eosinophils

211
Q

Neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils are involved in

A

Phagocytosis, defense against parasites, and inflammation

212
Q

Granular leukocytes are

A

Lymphocytes
Monocytes

213
Q

Lymphocytes and monocytes are involved in

A

Antibody production, cellular immune responses, and phagocytosis

214
Q

What is a double pump that sends blood to the lungs for oxygenation through the pulmonary circuit, and to the remainder of the body through the systemic circuit.
Deoxygenated blood returning from the body is received by the right atrium, which sends it to the right ventricle
The right ventricle pumps this blood into the pulmonary arteries, which travel to the lungs ad returns to the left atrium of the heart.
The oxygenated blood then enters the left ventricle, which pumps it into the aorta to be transported throughout the body.

A

Heart

215
Q

What regulates blood flow

A

Heart valves

216
Q

What is between the right atrium and right ventricle

A

Tricuspid valve

217
Q

What is between the left ventricle and left atrium

A

Bicuspid or mitral valve

218
Q

What is between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk (which splits into the pulmonary arteries)

A

Pulmonary semilunar valve

219
Q

What is between the left ventricle and the aorta

A

Aortic semilunar valve

220
Q

Supplies the heart muscles (myocardium) by the coronary arteries
Drains from the myocardium directly into the right atrium through the coronary sinus

A

Blood

221
Q

The heart has an intrinsic beat initiated by what and is transmitted along the conduction system through the myocardium

A

Sinoatrial node

222
Q

The period from the end of one contraction to the end of the next ventricular contraction

A

Cardiac cycle

223
Q

The contraction phase of the cycles is called

A

Systole

224
Q

The relaxation phase is called

A

Diastole

225
Q

Includes arteries that carry oxygenated blood away from the heart, veins that carry deoxygenated blood toward the heart, and the capillaries

A

Vascular system

226
Q

The smallest of vesicles
The sites of exchange of water, nutrients, and waste products between the blood and surrounding tissues

A

Capillaries

227
Q

What begins the with aorta, which sends branches to all parts of the body

A

Systemic arteries

228
Q

As arteries get farther away from the heart, what happens

A

They get thinner and thinner

229
Q

The smallest arteries are called

A

Arterioles

230
Q

Small veins are called

A

Venules

231
Q

What drains blood from the capillaries and send it to the veins

A

Venules

232
Q

What are the largest veins that empty into the right atrium of the heart

A

Superior and inferior vena cava

233
Q

The walls are thick and elastic
They carry blood under high pressure

A

Arteries

234
Q

This results from contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle in the arterial walls

A

Vasoconstriction and vasodilation

235
Q

These changes influence blood pressure and blood distribution to the tissues
The walls of the veins are thinner and less elastic than those of the arteries
They carry blood under lower pressure

A

Vasoconstriction and vasodilation

236
Q

What system includes components of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs with their alveoli, diaphragm, and muscles surrounding the ribs

A

Respiratory system

237
Q

Respiration is controlled by the respiratory control center in the

A

Brainstem

238
Q

What supplies oxygen to the body and eliminates carbon dioxide

A

Respiratory system

239
Q

What refers to the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the blood through the alveoli

A

External respiration

240
Q

What refers to the exchange of gases between the blood and the body cells

A

Internal respiration

241
Q

These passageways serve to warm, filter, and moisten incoming air through mucous membranes and the movement of cilia

A

The upper passageways

242
Q

What requires the contraction of the diaphragm to enlarge the thoracic cavity and draw air into the lungs

A

Inhalation

243
Q

What is a passive process during which the lungs recoil as the respiratory muscles relax and the thorax decreases in size

A

Exhalation

244
Q

What is releases from hemoglobin as the concentration of oxygen drops in the tissues

A

Oxygen

245
Q

What is carried on hemoglobin cells but most is converted to bicarbonate ion in the blood

A

Carbon dioxide

246
Q

Since hydrogen bonds are released, carbon dioxide is a regulator of what in the respiratory system

A

Blood pH

247
Q

What is a tube that consists of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus

A

Digestive system

248
Q

What are the four main layers in the digestive tract from innermost to outer

A

Mucous membrane
Submucous layer
Muscular layer
Serous layer

249
Q

What are the accessory organs of the digestive tract

A

Liver
Pancreas
Gallbladder

250
Q

Food is ingested into the mouth where it is mechanically broken down by teeth and tongue in the process of what

A

Mastication (chewing)

251
Q

What is produced by the 3 pairs of salivary glands, lubricates and dilutes chewed food

A

Saliva

252
Q

Saliva contains an enzyme called what that starts that digestion of complex carbohydrates

A

Amylase

253
Q

A ball of food is call

A

Bolus

254
Q

What is a narrow tube leading from the pharynx to the stomach

A

Esophagus

255
Q

What enters the stomach where gastric glands secrete hydrochloric acid that unwinds proteins so that the enzyme pepsin can digest them. The layers of muscle in the stomach will churn and mix the bolus of food with gastric secretions, turning the mass into a soupy substance called chyme, which enters the small intestine

A

Food

256
Q

A mass turned into a soupy substance

A

Chyme

257
Q

The majority of digestion and absorption of food occur in the what

A

Small intestine

258
Q

What are the 3 major regions that are in the small intestine

A

Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum

259
Q

What is made by the liver, and stored in the gallbladder, empties into the small intestine to emulsify fats

A

Bile

260
Q

Secretions from what buffer the acidic chyme from the stomach, and contain enzymes such as lipase that digests fats, amylase that continues carbohydrate digestion, and protein-digesting enzymes

A

Pancreas

261
Q

This intestine also secretes digestive enzymes that finish digesting carbohydrates into monosaccharides, and protein-digesting enzymes

A

Small intestine

262
Q

After digestion, what is absorbed through the walls of the small intestine

A

Nutrients

263
Q

Small finger-like projections

A

Villi

264
Q

Increase the surface area of the intestinal wall

A

Villi

265
Q

Most of the fats are absorbed into the lymph also known as

A

Lacteals

266
Q

Which intestine reabsorbs water and stores and eliminates undigested food

A

Large intestine

267
Q

What is the abundant bacteria in the large intestine called

A

Intestinal flora

268
Q

What are the 5 portions of the large intestine

A

Ascending colon
Transverse colon
Descending colon
Sigmoid colon
Rectum

269
Q

What is the opening for defecation (expelling of feces)

A

Anus

270
Q

What consists of 2 kidneys, 2 ureters, a urinary bladder, and the urethra.

A

Urinary system

271
Q

What filters blood in the urinary system

A

Kidneys

272
Q

What are tubes that transport urine to the urinary bladder where urine is stored before urination through the urethra to the outside

A

Ureters

273
Q

What are the functional units of the kidneys

A

Nephrons

274
Q

What small coiled tubes filters wastes out of the blood brought to the kidney by the renal artery

A

Nephrons

275
Q

Where does the actually filtration process occur under the force of blood pressure through the glomerulus?

A

Bowman’s capsule of the nephron

276
Q

As the glomerular filtrate passes through the nephron, components needed by the body, such as water, glucose, and ions, leave the nephron by diffusion and reenter the blood. Water is reabsorbed at the tubules of the nephron. The final product produced by the millions of nephrons per kidney is what?

A

Urine

277
Q

The male and female sex organs (the testes and ovaries) produce what?

A

Gametes (sex cells)

278
Q

Reproductive activity is what in women but continuous in men

A

Cyclic

279
Q

In males, what is developed within the seminiferous tubules of each testis.

A

Spermatozoa

280
Q

The interstitial fluid between the seminiferous tubules produce what

A

Testosterone

281
Q

What influences sperm cell development and also produces the male secondary sex characteristics such as increased facial hair and body hair as well as voice deepening.

A

The male hormone

282
Q

Once produced, sperm is matured and stored in what?

A

Epididymis of each testis

283
Q

During what is the pathway for the sperm that includes the vas deferens, ejactulatory duct, and the urethra.

A

Ejaculation

284
Q

Along the pathway are glands that produce the transport medium or semen. These include what?

A

Seminal vesicles
Prostate gland
Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) gland

285
Q

Testicular activity is under the control of 2 anterior pituitary hormones that are?

A

FSH- regulates sperm production

LH- stimulates the interstitial cells to produce testosterone

286
Q

In females, each month, under the influence of FSH, several eggs ripen within the ovarian follicles in what?

A

Ovary

287
Q

What is produced by the follicle that initiates the preparation of the endometrium of the uterus for pregnancy

A

Estrogen

288
Q

At approximately day 14 of the cycle, a surge of LH is released from the pituitary gland, which stimulates what?

A

Ovulation and the conversion of the follicle to the corpus luteum

289
Q

What secretes the hormones progesterone and estrogen, which further stimulate development of the endometrium

A

Corpus luteum

290
Q

After ovulation, the egg is swept into what

A

The oviduct or fallopian tube

291
Q

Fertilization occurs in the what?

A

Oviduct
Fallopian tube

292
Q

If fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum remains what

A

Functional

293
Q

If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum

A

Degenerates and menstruation beings

294
Q

This travels to the uterus and implants itself within the endometrium

A

Fertilized egg or zygote

295
Q

During pregnancy, hormone from the placenta maintain what

A

Endometrium and prepare the mammary glands for breast milk production

HESI Review (4 decks)

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