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Brooke Comprehensive Exam > Biology > Flashcards

Biology Flashcards

1
Q

When did life on Earth begin?

A

Approximately 3.5-4 billion years ago.

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2
Q

What are the levels of biological organization?

A
  • atoms
  • molecules and macromolecules
  • cells
  • tissues
  • organs
  • organism
  • population
  • community
  • ecosystem
  • biosphere
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3
Q

natural selection

A

when a mutation causes a beneficial change in survival or reproduction and the frequency of that mutation increases across generations

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4
Q

Prokaryote

A

simple cell structure

  • bacteria
  • archaea
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5
Q

eukaryote

A

Larger cells with internal compartments that serve various functions. Cells have a nucleus

  • protists
  • plants
  • fungi
  • animals
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6
Q

What are the taxonomic levels?

A
  • Domain
  • Kingdom
  • Phylum
  • Class
  • Order
  • Family
  • Genus
  • Species
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7
Q

genome

A

complete genetic composition of an organism

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8
Q

proteome

A

all of the proteins that a cell or organism can make

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9
Q

theory

A

broad explanation of some aspect of the natural world that is substantiated by a large body of evidence

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10
Q

What are the types of particles within atoms?

A
  • protons (in atomic nucleus)
  • neutrons (in atomic nucleus)
  • electrons (in orbitals at various distance from the nucleus)
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11
Q

ion

A

atom that has gained or lost one or more electrons

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12
Q

valence electrons

A

electrons in the outermost shell of the atom

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13
Q

atomic number

A

given based on the number of protons the element has

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14
Q

isotopes

A

elements that differ in the number of neutrons

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15
Q

radioisotopes

A

unstable isotopes that persis for a long time and lose energy by emitting subatomic particles and/or radiation

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16
Q

What elements are living organisms mainly made of?

A
  • oxygen
  • carbon
  • hydrogen
  • nitrogen
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17
Q

trace element

A

present in extremely small quantity but is essential for normal growth/function
-example: iron

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18
Q

covalent bond

A

atoms share electrons

  • can occur between atoms whose outer shells are not full
  • strong bonds
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19
Q

polar covalent bond

A

one atom is more electronegative that the other and shared electrons create poles with one atom more negative than the other

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20
Q

nonpolar covalent bond

A

bond between atoms with similar electronegativities

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21
Q

hydrogen bond

A

hydrogen atom from one polar molecule becomes electrically attracted to the electronegative atom in another polar molecule
-weak on their own but strong if there’s enough of them (ex: in DNA)

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22
Q

van der Waals forces

A

short-lived electrical attraction due to unevenly distributed electrons in orbit

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23
Q

ionic bond

A

bond between negative and positive ions

-bond easily broken in water

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24
Q

cation

A

ion with net positive charge (lost and electron)

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25
Q

anion

A

ion with net negative charge (gained electron)

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26
Q

chemical reaction

A

one or more substances are changed into other substances

-requires energy (usually heat)

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27
Q

Brownian motion

A

heat energy causing atoms and molecules to vibrate/move

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28
Q

catalyst

A

substance that speeds up a chemical reaction

-ex: enzyme

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29
Q

What are the properties of water?

A
  • ions and polar molecules readily dissolve in water
  • water is a polar covalent bond
  • high specific heat - amount of heat needed to raise temperature
  • cohesion - water molecules attract to each other (hydrogen bonds)
  • adhesion - water attracted to and adheres to a surface that is not electrically neutral
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30
Q

organic molecule

A

carbon-containing molecule

-lipids, carbs, proteins, nucleic acids

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31
Q

urea

A

natural organic product formed from the breakdown of proteins in an animals body

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32
Q

How many covalent bonds can carbon form?

A

4

  • 4 electrons in outer shell, wants 8 total
  • can form non-polar and polar covalent bonds
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33
Q

isomers

A

2 structures with an identical molecular formula but different structures and characteristics

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34
Q

What are carbohydrates used for in the body?

A

They are used for energy! To make ATP!
They circulate blood into cells. Inside cells, enzymes break down glucose into smaller molecules. This releases energy stored in the bonds that are breaking down. This new energy is then stored in the bonds of ATP.

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35
Q

polysaccharides

A

“many sugars”

  • starch, glycogen
  • used to store energy in cells
  • can be broken down to sugars, which can be broken down to make ATP
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36
Q

Are lipids hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

A

Hydrophobic!

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37
Q

How are fats (triglycerides) formed?

A

Bonding glycerol to 3 fatty acids

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38
Q

fatty acid

A

a chain of carbon and hydrogen atoms with a carboxyl group (-COOH) at one end

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39
Q

saturated fatty acid

A

all carbon in the fatty acid are linked by single covalent bonds. They can pack together tightly

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40
Q

unsaturated fatty acid

A

At least one of the carbon bonds are linked by a double covalent bond. unsaturated fatty acids cannot pack together tightly

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41
Q

What are fats used for?

A

They store energy. Hydrolysis of triglycerides releases the fatty acids from glycerol. The fatty acids can be metabolized to provide energy to make ATP

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42
Q

phospholipid

A

The third hydroxyl group of glycerol is linked to a phosphate group instead of a fatty acid. This makes one end polar/hydrophilic and the other end is hydrophobic. This causes them to be organized into bilayers
-cell membranes

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43
Q

steroid

A
  • lipid with a skeleton that has 4 fused rings of carbon atoms
  • different than other types of lipids
  • cholesterol is converted to other steroids by modifying side groups
  • one or more hydroxyl groups are attached to the ring structure, but not enough to make a steroid water soluble
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44
Q

What elements are proteins made of? What are the building blocks of proteins?

A
  • made of C, H, O, N, and small amounts of other elements (sulfer)
  • polymers of amino acids
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45
Q

peptide bond

A

covalent bond formed between a carboxyl and amino group

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46
Q

polypeptide

A

many amino acids joined by peptide bonds

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47
Q

protein

A

1+ polypeptides that have been folded and twisted into a certain 3D shape to do a particular function

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48
Q

protein primary structure

A

amino acid sequence in straight line

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49
Q

protein secondary structure

A

amino acid sequence is folded into more complex structure

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50
Q

protein tertiary structure

A

polypeptide folds and refolds upon itself to assume a 3D shape

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51
Q

protein quaternary structure

A

2+ polypeptides of tertiary structure assembled with each other
-ex: hemoglobin (4 protein subunits)

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52
Q

nucleic acids

A

responsible for the storage, expression, and transmission of genetic info
-polymers that are made of neucleotides

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53
Q

What are the building blocks of nucleic acids?

A

Nucleotides

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54
Q

What are the two classes of nucleic acids?

A
  • deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

- riboneucleic acid (RNA)

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55
Q

DNA

A

stores genetic info coded in the sequence of their monomer building blocks (nucleotides)

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56
Q

RNA

A

involved in decoding DNA info into instructions for linking specific sequence of amino acids to form a polypeptide chain

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57
Q

What are the bases (nucleotides) of DNA?

A 
purine bases
-adenine
-guanine
pyrimidine bases
-cytosine
-thymine
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58
Q

What are the bases (nucleotides) of RNA?

A 
purine bases
-adenine
-guanine
pyrimidine bases
-cytosine
-uracil
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59
Q

prokaryote

A
  • simple cell structure
  • lack a mambrane-enclosed nucleus
  • bacteria and archaea
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60
Q

plasma membrane

A

double layer of phospholipids and embedded proteins

-barrier between cell and external environment

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61
Q

cytoplasm

A

region of cell contained within the plasma membrane

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62
Q

ribosome

A

involved in polypeptide synthesis

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63
Q

cell wall

A

relatively rigid structure that protects plasma membrane and cytoplasm
-porous

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64
Q

organelle

A

membrane-bound compartment with its own unique structure and function

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65
Q

nucleus

A

where most of DNA is housed

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66
Q

cytosol

A

outside the organelles but inside the plasma membrane. The fluid in the cytoplasm.
-metabolism occurs here

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67
Q

metabolism

A

sum of chemical reactions by which cells produce the materials and utilize the energy necessary to sustain life

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68
Q

catabolism

A

breakdown of molecules into smaller components

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69
Q

anabolism

A

synthesis of cellular molecules and macromolecules

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70
Q

cytoskeleton

A

network of 3 types of protein filaments (microtubles, intermediate filaments, actin filaments)
-provides cell shape, organization, and movement

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71
Q

motor proteins

A

proteins that use ATP as a source of energy to promote movement
-interact with cytoskeletal filaments to promote movement

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72
Q

nuclear envelope

A

double-membrane structure that encloses the nucleus

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73
Q

nuclear pores

A

provide passageway for movement of molecules/macromolecules into/out of nucleus

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74
Q

chromosome

A

composed of DNA and proteins that help to compact the chromosome to fit in nucleus

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75
Q

chromatin

A

chromosome-protein complex

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76
Q

What is the function of the nucleus?

A

protect, organize, replicate, express DNA

-assemply of ribosome subunits

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77
Q

nucleolus

A

where the assembly of ribosom subunits occurs

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78
Q

rough endoplasmic reticulum

A

key rold in sorting proteins that are destined for the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, plasma membrane, or outside of the cell

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79
Q

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A

provides increases surface area for key enzymes that play important metabolic roles

  • enzymes in smooth ER are critical in synthesis and modifications of lipids (estrogen and T production)
  • sit of detoxification
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80
Q

Golgi apparatus

A
  • processing and modifying certain proteins and lipids
  • protein sorting
  • secretion of materials (package of materials into secretory vesicles that later fuse with the plasma membrane to release contents)
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81
Q

lysosome

A

small organelles in animal cells that lyse/break macromolecules

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82
Q

vacuoles

A

temporarily store or transport materials in animal cells

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83
Q

peroxisomes

A

catalyze the breakdown of harmful molecules

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84
Q

What are the characteristics of the cell membrane?

A
  • semi-permeable (plasma membrane proteins transport nutrients, ions, etc. into-out of cell
  • cell signaling (cell membrane receptors get signals (environmental, hormones) that triggers cell to have a response
  • cell adhesion (proteins on mombranes can allow cells to interact)
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85
Q

semiautonomous organelles

A

can grow and divide to reproduce themselves

  • mitochondria and chloroplasts (plants only)
  • have their own DNA
  • divide by binary fission (splitting in 2)
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86
Q

mitochondrian

A

site where ATP is made

  • convert chemical energy stored within covalent bonds of organic molecules into a form (ATP) that can be readily used by cells
  • involved in synthesis, modification, breakdown of several types of molecules (synthesis of certain hormones)
  • have their own DNA
  • divide by binary fission (splitting in 2)
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87
Q

protein sorting signals

A

short stretches of amino acid sequences on proteins that direct them to their correct cellular location

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88
Q

protein cotranslational sorting

A

translation at ribosome halts until ribosome binds to the endoplasmic reticulum membrane
-translation resumes and protein is sorted by ER

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89
Q

protein post-translational sorting

A

sorting does not occur until translation is finished

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90
Q

What are the primary components of cell membranes?

A
  • phospholipids
  • proteins embedded or attached to membrane
  • carbs (lesser component)
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91
Q

Described the phospholipid bilayer (polarity etc.)

A
  • hydrophilic (polar) head on surface
  • hydrophobic (nonpolar) tails on interior
  • because of hydrophobic interior, membrane is a barrier to movement of ions and hydrophilic molecules
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92
Q

Why is the phospholipid bilayer semi-fluid?

A
  • it’s short tails are less likely to interact with each other (makes them more fluid)
  • fatty acid tail are unsaturated fats (have double bond) which make membrane more fluid and makes interactions more difficult
  • cholesterol is present and is rigid
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93
Q

How does the cholesterol in the plasma membrane make it more or less fluid with changing temperature?

A
  • at higher temperature, cholesterol makes membrane less fluid
  • at lower temperature, cholesterol makes membrane more fluid (prevents freezing)
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94
Q

What is the advantage of plasma membrane being semi-permeable?

A

ensures essential molecules enter cell, metabolic intermediates remain in cell, waste products exit cell

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95
Q

diffusion

A

sustance moves from region of higher concentration to region of lower concentration
-passive transport

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96
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

transport proteins provides a passageway for the substance to cross the plasma membrane
-passive transport

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97
Q

passive transport

A

transport of a substance across a membrane from a region of high concentration to low concentration
-does not require input of energy

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98
Q

active transport

A

moves substance from an area of LOW concentration to HIGH concentration (against a concentration gradient) with the aid of a transport protein
-requires the input of energy (ATP hydrolysis)

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99
Q

isotonic

A

solute concentrations on both sides of membrane are equal

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100
Q

hypertonic

A

solute concentration is higher on this side of membrane compared to other side

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101
Q

hypotonic

A

solute concentration on this side of membrane is lower than other side

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102
Q

osmosis

A

water diffuses acress membrane from hypotonic compartment to hypertonic compartment
-when solutes cant readily move across membrane

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103
Q

primary active transport

A

type of transport that directly uses energy to transport solute against a gradient

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104
Q

secondary active transport

A

use of a pre-existing gradient to drive the active transport of another solute
-Na+/K+ pump (Na+/K+ ATPase)

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105
Q

exocytosis

A

material inside cell is packaged into vesicles and excreted into extracellular environment
-for transport of very large molecules (proteins, polysaccharides)

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106
Q

endocytosis

A

plasma membrane invaginates to form a vesicle that brings substances into cell
-for very large molecules (proteins, polysaccharides)

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107
Q

enzyme

A

proteins that act as critical catalysts to speed up different reactions in cells
-creat or breakdown reactions

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108
Q

metabolism

A

sum total of all chemical reactions that occur within an organism

  • most create or breakdown molecules
  • cells use intermediate molecules (ATP) to drive chemical reactions in a desired direction
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109
Q

energy

A

ability to producy change or do work

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110
Q

1st law of thermodynamics

A

energy cannot be created or destroyed
-can be transferred from one place to another or transferred between types of energy (i.e. chemical energy transferred to heat)

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111
Q

2nd law of thermodynamics

A

transfer of energy or transformation of energy from one form to another increases the entropy (degree of disorder) of a system

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112
Q

free energy

A

amount of available energy that can be used to promote change or do work

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113
Q

exergonic reaction

A

free energy is released during product formation

-spontaneous reaction

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114
Q

endergonic reaction

A

required addition of free energy

-NOT a spontaneous reaction (forms reactants)

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115
Q

hydrolysis of ATP

A

energy liberated is used to drive a variety of cellular processes
-ATP with addition of water breaks down to ADP + Pi (inorganic phosphate)

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116
Q

activation energy

A

initial input of energy to get molecules close enough to interact

  • enzymes lower activation energy
  • positions molecules closer together
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117
Q

enzyme inhibitors

A

bind to enzyme and inhibit their functions

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118
Q

competitive inhibitor

A

enzyme inhibitor that binds directly to active site so substrate can’t find it

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119
Q

noncompetitive inhibitor

A

enzyme inhibitor that binds noncovalently to an enzyme at a location outside the active site (an allosteric site) and inhibits the enzymes function

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120
Q

metabolic pathway

A

coordinated sequences of reactions

-each step catalyzed by a specific enzyme

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121
Q

catabolic reaction

A

breaks down molecules

  • usually exergonic
  • recycle organic building blocks and produce energy intermediates (ATP, NADH)
  • can then use building blocks and energy intermediates to make new macromolecules
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122
Q

anabolic reaction

A

builds molecules

-usually endergonic and must be coupled to an exergonic reaction

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123
Q

glycolosis

A

breakdown of glucose to pyruvate

  • catabolic reaction
  • creates ATP
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124
Q

oxidation

A

removal of 1+ electrons from atom/molecule (oxygen frequently involved/receiving electron)

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125
Q

reduction

A 
adds electron(s) to atom/molecule
-reduces charge
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126
Q

redox reaction

A

one side is oxidized, other side is reduced

  • electrons often go to NAD+ to make NADH
  • NADH can be used to make ATP
  • NADH also gives electrons to help anabolic reactions
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127
Q

cellular respiration

A

metabolic reactions that a cell uses to get energy from food molecules and release waste products
-makes ATP

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128
Q

aerobic respiration

A

uses oxygen to make ATP and releases CO2

  • carbs, proteins, fats can be used as energy sources to drive respiration (glucose)
  • glucose + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy intermediates (ATP) + heat
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129
Q

What are the pathway steps of aerobic respiration?

A
  • glycolysis (glucose broken down into pyruvate, makes ATP)
  • breakdown of pyruvate to an acetyl group in mitochondria (makes NADH)
  • citric acid cycle in mitochondria (each acetyl group is incorporated into an organic molecule which is later oxidized to release CO2 (makes ATP, NADH, FADH2)
  • oxidative phosphorylation (oxidation of NADH and FADH2 via electron transport chain provides more energy to make ATP, O2 is consumed, makes a lot of ATP. O2 is the final step of the electron transport chain to receive an electron, H2O is produced. At the end of electron transport chain, ATP synthase helps synthesizes ATP via oxidative phosphorylation)
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130
Q

anaerobic respiration

A

creates energy in the absence of sufficient oxygen (i.e. strenuous exercise). Has 2 different strategies:

  • use a substance other than O2 as final electron acceptor in electron transport chain
  • produce ATP only via substrate-level phosphorylation (an enzyme directly transfers a phosphate from an organic molecule to ADP)
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131
Q

How can glycolysis occur without O2

A

pyruvate from glycolysis is reduced to make lactate

  • no net oxidation
  • called fermentation
  • yields WAY less ATP (2 vs ~30 during aerobic respiration)
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132
Q

direct intercellular signalling

A
  • direct contact between cells

- junctions enable them to pass ions, signaling molecules, etc. to one another

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133
Q

contact dependent cell signaling

A

-membrane-bound signaling receptors allow molecules to be in contact with both cells

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134
Q

autocrine cell signaling

A
  • cell secretes signaling molecules that bind to receptors on its own cell surface, stimulating a response
  • can affect nearby cells of same cell type
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135
Q

paracrine cell signaling

A

cell secretes signals that affect nearby target cells (but not itself)

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136
Q

endocrine cell signaling

A

secretion of hormones into bloodstream that travel up to long distances to target cells
-longer lasting signaling

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137
Q

What are the steps of cell signaling response?

A
  • receptor activation (signaling molecule binds to receptor, causing confirmational change that activates its function)
  • signal transduction (activated receptor stimulates a series of proteins that forms a signal transduction pathways
  • cellular response (signal transduction pathway affects the functions and/or amount of cellular proteins, thereby producing a cellular response)
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138
Q

transcription factors

A

proteins that regulate the transcription of genes

-ex: sex hormones do this

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139
Q

ligand

A

cell signaling molecule

-binds noncovalently to cell receptor with high specificity

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140
Q

enzyme-linked cell receptor

A

extracellular dowmain binds to signal (ligand), intracellular domain has a cataclytic function activated

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141
Q

G-protein-coupled cell receptor

A

when bound to signal (ligand), interacts with intracellular G proteins

  • causes G protein to bind with GTP instead of GDP
  • G protein dissociates into alpha and beta, which causes response
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142
Q

ligand-gated ion channel

A

ligand binds to receptor to open channel and allow flow of ions through membrane

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143
Q

intracellular receptor

A

located inside cell

  • many steroid hormone receptors are intracellular
  • hydrophobic hormones can pass through plasma membrane
  • steroid hormones bind receptors in nucleus
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144
Q

What are the roles of extracellular matrix?

A
  • strength
  • structural support (bones)
  • organization (propoer arrangement of cells, binds body parts)
  • cell signaling
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145
Q

cell junctions

A

specials structures that link cells

  • anchoring junctions (attach cells to each other and to the ECM)
  • tight junctions (forms tight seal between cells to prevent material from leaking between cells)
  • gap junctions (small gap occurs between the plasma membranes of cells connected by these junctions
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146
Q

tissue

A

group of cells having a similar structure and function

147
Q

What are the 4 types of animal tissues?

A
  • epithelial
  • connective
  • nervous
  • muscle
148
Q

deoxyribonucleic acid

A

genetic material that provides the blueprint to produce an individuals traits

149
Q

What are the components of nucleotides?

A
  • phosphate group
  • pentose sugar (deoxyribose in DNA)
  • nitrogenous bases (A, G, T, C, U) that store and transmit info
150
Q

DNA helicase

A

enzyme that uses ATP to unwind strands of DNA

-travels along one strand

151
Q

DNA topoisomerase

A

travels ahead of replication fork and removes foiling in DNA

151
Q

DNA topoisomerase

A

travels ahead of replication fork and removes foiling in DNA

152
Q

single-strand binding proteins

A

coat separated DNA strands to prevent the reforming of the double-helix until synthesis of complementary strands is complete

153
Q

DNA polymerase

A

covalently links nucleotides together to form DNA strands in DNA replication

154
Q

DNA primase

A

primes lone template DNA for DNA polymerase to work during DNA replication

155
Q

DNA ligase

A

catalyzes formation of a covalent bond between DNA fragment during DNA replication

156
Q

DNA proofreading

A

DNA can detect a mismatch and remove it from the daughter strand during DNA replication

157
Q

telomere

A

short nucleutide sequence at the end of chromosome that is repeated many times

  • because DNA polymerase cannot copy end of DNA strand
  • telomerase attaches telomeres together
158
Q

transcription

A

produces an RNA copy of a gene

  • messanger RNA carries info from DNA to ribosome
  • contains info to make a polypeptide with a specific amino acid sequence
159
Q

translation

A

synthesizes a specific polypeptide on a ribosome
-mRNA is translated into amino acid sequence
code is read in groups of 3 nucleotide bases known as codons (that specify an amino acid)

160
Q

transfer RNA (tRNA)

A

translates the language of mRNA into that of amino acid during translation (has amino acid attached to it)

161
Q

ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

A

forms part of ribosomes

162
Q

promotor

A

signals the beginning of transcription of DNA

163
Q

terminator

A

signals the end of transcription of DNA

164
Q

regulatory sequence

A

when regulatory proteins bind to this, it affects the rate of transcription

165
Q

RNA polymerase

A

runs along DNA and synthesizes RNA from the promoter to the terminator during transcription

166
Q

transcription factors

A

proteins that influence the ability of RNA polymerase to transcribe genes

  • required to initiate transcription
  • steroid hormones can act as transcription factors
167
Q

ribosome

A

site where translation occurs

-usually in cytosol, but some ribosomes are in the mitochondria as well

168
Q

What is gene expression?

A

process by which info within a gene is made into a functional product

169
Q

What is gene regulation?

A

the ability of cells to control the expression of genes

  • timing, amount
  • conserves energy
  • produce proteins only when needed
170
Q

diploid

A

2 sets of chromosomes

  • most eukaryotic cells
  • homologous pairs (1 from mom, 1 from dad)
171
Q

haploid

A

1 set of chromosomes

-gametes are haploid

172
Q

What is the cell cycle?

A

sequence of growth, replication, and division that produces new cells

173
Q

Describe the phases of mitosis

A
  • interphase - cell growth
  • interphas - chromosomes (DNA) replicated (after replication, the 2 copies are still joined to each other as a pair of sister chromatids)
  • interphase - cell synthesizes proteins needed for chromosome sorting and cell division
  • prophase - nuclear envelope begins to dissociate into small vesicles and chromatids condense into highly compacted structures
  • prometaphase - nuclear envelope completely fragments into small vesicles and mitotic spindle is formed (cnetrosomes move to the 2 poles)
  • metaphase - pairs of sister chromatids align along the metaphase plate
  • anaphase - sister chromatids separate and chromosomes more toward poles
  • telophase - chromosomes reach respective poles and decondense, nuclear envelope reforms to produce 2 nuclei
  • cytokinesis - cleavage furrow separates mother cell into 2 daughter cells
174
Q

zygote

A

fertilized egg, diploid

-grows and divides by mitosis

175
Q

meisosis

A

haploid cells are produced from a cell that was originally diploid

  • 1 chromosome from each of the pairs
  • single diploid cell with homologous pairs of chromosomes produces 4 haploid cells
  • diploid cells in testes and ovaries undergo meiosis to produce haploid sperm and eggs
176
Q

Describe the phases of meiosis

A
  • interphase -cell growth
  • interphase - chromosomes (DNA) replicated (after replication, the 2 copies are still joined to each other as a pair of sister chromatids)
  • interphase - cell synthesizes proteins needed for chromosome sorting and cell division
  • meiosis 1 - separates homologues from each other
  • meiosis 1 prophase 1 - replicated chromosomes condense, homologous chromosomes form bivalents and crossing over occurs. Nuclear envelope starts to fragment into small vesicles
  • meiosis 1 prometaphase 1 - nuclear envelope completely dissociates into vesicles. Bivalents become attached to kinetochore microtubules
  • meiosis 1 metaphase 1 - bivalents randomly align along the metaphase plate
  • meiosis 1 anaphase 1 - homologous chromosomes separate and move toward opposite poles by kinetochore microtubules
  • meiosis 1 telophase 1 - chromosomes decondense and nuclear envelope reforms
  • meiosis 1 cytokinesis - separates 2 haploid daughter cells
  • meiosis 2 - analogous to mitotic division
177
Q

Mendel’s Law of Segregation

A

two alleles of a gene separate during gamete formation so that every gamete receives only one allele
-during segregation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis

178
Q

homozygous

A

2 identical alleles for a gene

179
Q

heterozygous

A

2 different alleles for a gene

180
Q

phenotype

A

characteristics of an organism that are the result of the expression of its genes

181
Q

monohybrid cross

A

follows 1 trait/variant across generations

182
Q

dihybrid cross

A

simultaneously follows the inheritance of 2 different traits

183
Q

Law of Independent Assortment

A

alleles of different genes assort independently of each other during gamete formation

  • independent alignment of different chromosomes during meiosis
  • not the case for ALL alleles (alleles near each other on same chromosomes are less independent)
184
Q

Chromosome Theory of Inheritance

A

inheritance patterns of traits can be explained by the transmission of chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization

185
Q

locus

A

physical location of a gene on a chromosome

186
Q

pedigree analysis

A

an inherited trait is analyzed over the course of a few generations in one family

187
Q

Mendelian Inheritance

A

inheritance pattern of genes that segregate and assort independently

188
Q

Explain the dominant vs. recessive allele

A

recessive allel is often defective in its ability to express a function protein while the dominant allele makes enough the the protein to give the dominant phenotype

189
Q

norm of reaction

A

effects of environmental variation on a phenotype

190
Q

gene interaction

A

all or nearly all traits are influenced by many genes, each of which have 2+ alleles

191
Q

epistasis

A

allele of one gene masks the phenotypic effects of a different gene
-2 or more proteins involved in a singular cellular function

192
Q

genetic imprinting

A

a segment of DNA is imprinted or marked so that gene expression occurs only from the genetic material inherited from 1 parent

193
Q

developmental genetics

A

understanding how gene expression controls the process of development

194
Q

cell differentiation

A

cells morphology and function change into a highly specialized cell type

195
Q

pattern formation

A

development of a body plan

  • cell division
  • cell migration
  • cell differentiation
  • cell death
196
Q

morphogens

A

impart positional information and promote developmental changes at the cellular level

197
Q

Describe the phases of development in animals.

A
  • transcription factors determine formation of the body axes and control the expression of transcription factors of next phase
  • transcription factors cause the embryo to become subdivided into regions that have properties of individual segments. Control transcription factors of next phase
  • transcription factors cause each segment and groups of segments to develop specific characteristics. Control transcription factors of next phase
  • transcription factors cause cells to differentiate into specific cell types such as skin, nerve, muscle cells (differential gene expression)
198
Q

differential gene expression

A

different types of cells have same genes but activate/deactivate them differently

199
Q

When was the big bang?

A

Approximately 13.7 billion years ago

200
Q

When did the Earth form?

A

Approximately 4.6 billion years ago

201
Q

When did like on Earth begin?

A

Approximatley 3.5-4 billion years ago

202
Q

Describe the origin of life on Earth

A
  • nucleotides and amino acids were produced prior to the existence of cells (“primordial soup”)
  • nucleotides became polymerized to form RNA and/or DNA and amino acids became polymerized to form proteins
  • RNA/DNA and proteins became enclosed in membranes
  • polymers enclosed in membranes acquired cellular properties
  • Believe RNA came before DNA
203
Q

When were the first multicellular eukaryotic organisms formed?

A

Approximately 1.5 billion years ago

204
Q

Cambrian explosion

A

explosion of animal diversity

-possibly due to an increase in oxygen in the atmosphere allowing aerobic metabolism

205
Q

evolution

A

heritable change in one or more characteristics of a population from one generation to the next

206
Q

microevolution

A

change in gene or allele frequency

207
Q

macroevolution

A

formation of a new species or groups of related species

208
Q

molecular evolution

A

molecular changes in the genetic material that underly the phenotypic changes associated with evolution

209
Q

What causes evolution to occur?

A
  • genetic variation (pass down from random mutations in genes)
  • natural selection (individuals with heritable traits that make them better suited to their environment tend to flourish and reproduce, other individuals less likely to survive and reproduce)
210
Q

biogeography

A

study of geographic distribution of extinct and living species
-isolated islands and continents have evolved their own distinct plant and animal communities

211
Q

convergent evolution

A

two different species from different lineages have independently evolved similar characteristics because they occupy similar environments

212
Q

analogous structure

A

characteristics that originated independently but are similar

213
Q

homology

A

similarity that occurs due to descent from a common ancestor

  • anatomical (forearms for walking, flying, swimming)
  • developmental (ways animals undergo embryonic development)
  • molecular (DNA, RNA)
214
Q

gene pool

A

all the elleles for every gene in a population

215
Q

Hardy-Weinberg Equation

A

described the relationship between allele and genotype frequencies when a population is NOT evolving

(p)^2+2pq+(q)^2=1

216
Q

directional selection

A

favors an extreme end of a phenotype

217
Q

stabilizing selection

A

favors intermediate phenotypes

218
Q

diversifying selection

A

favors survival of 2 different phenotypes

-patchy environment

219
Q

balancing selection

A

maintains genetic diversity

220
Q

sexual selection

A

traits that make it more likely to find or choose a mate and mate successfully directly promotes reproductive success

221
Q

intrasexual selection

A

traits that help competition with other males

-big claws to fend off other males for crabs

222
Q

intersexual selection

A

traits that help female pick male

-flashy mating behavior

223
Q

genetic drift

A

changes in allele frequency due to random chance (can be beneficial or bad) regardless of fitness
-greater impact at small population size

224
Q

bottleneck effect

A

dramatic event reduces population size with different alleles or genetic drift decreases genetic variation more quickly

225
Q

founder effect

A

when small group separates from population and establishes colony in a new location
-allele frequency may be different from old population

226
Q

inbreeding depression

A

breeding with related mates generally decreases reproduction success of population

227
Q

speciation

A

formation of new species typically through the accumulation of microevolutionary changes (mutations in genes)

228
Q

What are prezygotic mechanisms of reproductive isolation?

A
  • habitat isolation
  • temporal isolation (breed at different times)
  • behavioral isolation (different mating behavior or anatomy)
  • mechanical isolation (incompatible size or genetalia
  • gametic isolation (gamete fails to unite in a successful fertilizing event)
229
Q

What are postzygotic mechanisms of reproductive isolation?

A

block development after fertilization

  • hybrid inviability (fertilized egg can’t develop past early embryonic stages)
  • hybrid sterility (offspring lives but is sterile. ex: mule)
  • hybrid breakdown (hybrid is viable and fertile but subsequent generations may have genetic abnormalities that are detrimental)
230
Q

What are the 2 mechanisms of speciation?

A
  • allopatric speciation

- sympatric speciation

231
Q

allopatric speciation

A

some members of a species occupy and isolated habitat (geographic barrier) that causes new species

232
Q

sympatric speciation

A

members of a species diverge into different species even though they are in the same range and there are no barriers to inbreeding

  • polyploidy (organism has more than 2 sets of chromosomes. plants)
  • adaptation to local environment (variation in environment that does not have barriers)
  • sexual selection (mate choice)
233
Q

evolutionary developmental biology

A

compares the development of different organisms in an attempt to understand ancestral relationships between organisms and the developmental mechanisms that bring about evolutionary change

234
Q

phylogeny

A

evolutionary history of a species or group of species

235
Q

anagenesis

A

a single species evolves into a new species

236
Q

cladogenesis

A

a species diverges into 2 ore more species

237
Q

clade

A

common ancestral species and all of its descendent species

238
Q

What are the common characteristics of animals?

A
  • multicellularity
  • heterotrophs
  • no cell walls
  • nervous tissue
  • muscles/movement
  • sexual reproduction
  • extracellular matrix
  • characteristic cell junctions to hold cells in place and allow cell communication
  • species clusters of Hox genes (function in patterning the body axis) cause variation in morphology
  • similar RNA
239
Q

What are the 4 features of body plans that traditional animal classification is based on?

A
  • presence/absence of different tissue types
  • type of body symmetry (radial vs bilateral)
  • presence/absence of a true body cavity
  • specific features of embryonic development (cleavage, mouth/anus)
240
Q

What are some other features of animal classification outside the traditional 4 features?

A
  • presence of exoskeleton
  • development of notochord
  • presence of segmentation
241
Q

What are the features of the Phylum Chordata?

A
  • notochord (becomes spine in humans)
  • dorsal hollow nerve cord (becomes nervous system in humans)
  • pharyngeal slits
  • postanal tail
242
Q

umbrella species

A

a species that requires large home range

-ensures conservation of many other species

243
Q

What are the characteristics of the Subphylum Craniata in the Phylum Chordata?

A
  • cranium - protective enclosing for a more developed brain
  • neural crest - group of embryonic cell found on either side of the neural tube as it develops (these cells disperse throughout the embryo and contribute to the skeleton (cranium, jaws, teeth))
244
Q

What are the characteristics of Vertebrates?

A
  • vertebral column replaces notochord during development
  • endoskeleton of cartilage or bone
  • diversity of internal organs
245
Q

What are the characteristics of Chondrichythes?

A
  • cartilaginous skeleton
  • serial tooth replacement
  • dermal denticles
  • 2-chambered heart
  • lateral line (senses movement)
  • internal fertilization
246
Q

What are the characteristics of bony fishes?

A
  • bony skeleton
  • operculum covers gills
  • swim bladder
  • most have external fertilization
247
Q

What are the types of animal tissue?

A
  • muscle (body movement)
  • nervous (conduct electrical signals throughout body)
  • epithelial (cover body and line walls of organs)
  • connective (support structures)
248
Q

homeostasis

A

process of maintaining a relatively stable internal environment despite changes in external surroundings

249
Q

What factors are involved in regulating internal environment vs. conforming?

A
  • requires energy (ATP)
  • requires communication between cells (neurotransmitters for local communication and hormones for long distance communication)
250
Q

nervous system

A

coordinated curcuits of cells (neurons) that sense internal and environmental changes and transmit signals that enable us to respond in an appropriate way

251
Q

neurons

A

highly specialized cells that communicate with each other and other types of cells by electrical or chemical signals

252
Q

nerves

A

bundles of neuronal cell extensions projecting to and from various tissues and organs

253
Q

central nervous system

A

brain and nerve cord (spinal cord in vertebrates)

254
Q

peripheral nervous system

A

neurons outside the central nervous system

255
Q

neuron cell body or soma

A

contains cell nucleus and organelles, processes signals

256
Q

neuron dendrites

A

projections of plasma membrane that receives signals

257
Q

neuron axons

A

projections of plasma membrane that sends signals

258
Q

glia

A

surround neurons

  • metabolic support for neurons
  • maintain ion concentration in extracellular fluid
  • remove cellular debris
259
Q

What are the 3 types of neurons

A
  • sensory neurons (sense info and transmit it to CNS)
  • motor neurons (send signals away from CNS and elicit response such as movement)
  • interneurons (form interconnections between neurons in CNS)
260
Q

How do neurons work?

A
  • establish differences in ion concentration and electrical charge across their membranes
  • an electrochemical gradient governs movement of ions across membrane
  • signaling by a neuron occurs through changes in membrane potential
261
Q

neuron synapse

A

a junction where an axon terminal meets a target neuron, muscle cell, or gland in order to communicate with these cells

262
Q

nerve net

A
  • simplest nervous system (found in cnidarians)

- no single group of neurons controls all the others (like the brain)

263
Q

nerve cord

A
  • extend from anterior to posterior
  • connect to each other by transverse nerves
  • cerebral ganglia
264
Q

cephalization

A

formation of complex brain that controls sensory and motor functions of entire body
-usually has more than 1 anatomical and functional region

265
Q

hindbrain

A
  • basic reflexes and bodily functions, movements

- medulla oblongata, pons, cerebellum

266
Q

midbrain

A
  • processes many sensory inputs

- vision, olfaction, auditory

267
Q

forebrain

A

initiates motor functions and processes sensory inputs, conscious thought, planning, emotions

  • cerebrum and cerbral cortex (thought, learning, movement)
  • thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus
268
Q

ganglion

A

group of neuronal cell bodies located in the peripheral nervous system

269
Q

somatic nervous system

A

sense external environment and controls skeletal muscles

270
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

regulates homeostasis and organ function

  • involuntary
  • sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
271
Q

sympathetic nervous system

A

rapidly activating systems that prepare the body for danger or stress

272
Q

parasympathetic nervous system

A

maintaining and restoring body functions

273
Q

medulla oblongata

A

coordinated basic reflexes and bodily functions that maintain homeostasis

274
Q

cerebellum

A

receives sensory inputs

-balance, hand-eye coordination

275
Q

thalamus

A

relay sensory info to appropriate parts of the cerebrum

276
Q

hypothalamus

A

controls functions of gastrointestinal and reproductive systems, thermoregulation, basic behaviors (eating, drinking)

  • produce hormones
  • circadian thythm
277
Q

pineal gland

A
  • rhythmic/seasonal behaviors (melatonin)

- drinking, eating

278
Q

cerebrum

A

planning, learning, fine-tuning movement

279
Q

amygdala

A

emotions

280
Q

hippocampus

A

memories

281
Q

sensory receptor

A

recognizes an internal or external stimulus and initiates sensory transduction by creating graded potentials in itself or adjacent cells

282
Q

lateral line

A

hair cells inside pores detect changes in water current associated with external movements

283
Q

nocireceptors

A

sense pain

-respond to tissue damage or stimuli about to cause tissue damage

284
Q

tapetum lucidium

A

behind retina that reflects light back to photoreceptors to help see in dark

285
Q

muscles

A

composed of highly specialed cells that contract in response to stimuli

  • shortening of muscles causes movement
  • muscle contraction requires ATP and calcium ions
  • calcium binds to troponin, which allows tropomyosin to move and uncover the actin binding site
  • contraction is coupled with electrical excitation
286
Q

oxidative muscle fibers

A
  • red muscle

- lots of mitochondria, blood vessels, myoglobin, O2

287
Q

glycolytic muscle fibers

A
  • white muscle
  • few mitochondria, blood vessels, O2, myoglobin
  • high concentration of glycogen to do glycolysis
288
Q

metabolic rate

A

rate at which an organism uses energy to power reactions

-generates heat as byproduct

289
Q

glycogenolysis

A

glycogen broken down to glucose via hydrolysis

290
Q

gluconeogenesis

A

creation of new glucose using fat stores or proteins

291
Q

arteries

A

pump blood from heart to rest of body

292
Q

veins

A

pump blood from body to heart

293
Q

vasodilation

A

increase in blood vessel radius

  • increases blood flow
  • better for O2 and nutrient delivery
294
Q

vasoconstriction

A

decrease in blood vessel radius

-decreases blood flow

295
Q

How much of standard MR is used for ventilating gills?

A

10-20%

296
Q

Explain osmoregulation in marine fish

A
  • hypoosmotic to environment
  • water moves out, salts move in
  • drink constantly
  • secrete very little concentrated urine
  • active transport of Na+ Cl- out of gills
297
Q

How are excess salts eliminated in sharks?

A
  • kidney and rectal gland

- keep high concenration of urea and TMAO

298
Q

stenohaline

A

tolerate narrow salt range

299
Q

euryhaline

A

tolerate wide salinity range

300
Q

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

A

helps with water reabsorption in kidney

301
Q

hormone

A

chemical which circulates throughout body via bloodstream to target tissues to affect a range of functions

302
Q

amine hormones

A
  • derived from amino acids
  • must bind to plasma membrane receptor
  • hydrophilic
  • catecholamines, dopamine, melatonin
303
Q

peptide hormones

A
  • water soluble
  • must bind to plasma membrane receptor
  • insulin, glucagon, leptin
304
Q

steroid hormones

A
  • from cholesterol, lipids
  • hydrophobic
  • bound to carriers in blood
  • can diffuse across plasma membranes
  • bind to intracellular receptors (in cytosol or nucleus)
  • function as transcription factors
305
Q

hypothalamus hormone involved in reproduction

A

gonadotripin releasing hormone

306
Q

anterior pituitary hormones related to reproduction

A
  • follicle stimulating hormone

- leutinizing hormone

307
Q

gametogenesis

A

formation of gametes

  • primordial germ cells multiply by mitosis resulting in diploid cells (spermatogonia and oogonia)
  • some become primary spermatocytes or oocyes and begin meiosis
308
Q

spermatogenesis

A

formation of haploid sperm from original diploid germ cell

309
Q

acrosome (of sperm)

A

structure at tipe of head of sperm with enzymes that break down protective outer layer of ovum

310
Q

oogenesis

A

results in production of a single gamete from each primary oocyte

311
Q

leydig cells

A

make testosterone (not really in sharks)

312
Q

sertoli cells

A

aid in spermatogenesis, make T in sharks

313
Q

epididymis

A

long tube where sperm complete differentiation

314
Q

seminal vesicles

A

secretes fructose in semen that are nutrients for sperm

315
Q

population ecology

A

understand the factors that affects a population growth and determine its size and density

316
Q

community ecology

A

how populations of species interact and form functional communities

317
Q

ecosystem

A
  • flow of energy and cycling of chemical elements among organisms and between organisms and the environment
  • food weds
318
Q

proximate causes

A

specific genetic or physical mechanisms of behavior

319
Q

ultimate causes

A

effect of behavior on survival or reproductive success

320
Q

kinesis

A

movement in response to a stimulus but one that is not directed toward or away from the source

321
Q

taxis

A

more directed movement response either toward or away from an external stimulus

322
Q

optimality theory of foraging

A

optimize benefits vs costs of remaining at a resource patch to look for more food or looking for a completely new patch of resources

323
Q

population

A

group of interbreeding individuals occupying the same area at the same time

324
Q

demography

A

study of birth rates, death rates, age distribution, sizes of populations

325
Q

semelparous

A

reproduce once in lifetime

326
Q

iteroparous

A

reproduce throughout lifetime

327
Q

bet hedging

A

reproduction throughout life is used when survivial of juveniles is poor or unpredictable

328
Q

Why do we plot survivorship curves on a log scale

A

to examine rates of change over time rather than change in absolute numbers
-allows easy comparison between species

329
Q

exponential growth

A

rN

  • resources are not limiting (no carrying capacity)
  • can occur in new, expanding population
330
Q

logistic growth

A

rN((K-N)/K)

-resources are limiting (carrying capacity)

331
Q

amensalism

A

one individual is harmed, other not affected

332
Q

mutualism

A

both species benefit

333
Q

commensalism

A

one species benefits, other not effected

334
Q

exploitation competition

A

compete indirectly through consumption of limited resources

335
Q

interference competition

A

direct, physical/intimidation competition

336
Q

competitive exclusion principle

A

2 species cannot occupy same niche in same space

337
Q

resource partitioning

A

differentiation of niches that enable similar species to coexist in a community

338
Q

character displacement

A

tendency for 2 species to diverse in morphology and resource use because of competition
-darwins finches

339
Q

bottom-up model

A

food limitation influences population density

340
Q

top-down model

A

predator controls prey population

341
Q

species-area hypothesis

A

larger areas support more species

342
Q

intermediate disturbance hypothesis

A

moderately disturbed communities contain more species

343
Q

species diversity

A

incorporates number of species and relative abundance of each species

344
Q

diversity stability hypothesis

A

species rich communities are more stable than those with fewer species
-more likely to contain disturbance-resistant species

345
Q

succession

A

gradual and continuous change in species composition and community structure over time

346
Q

autotroph

A

harvest light or chemical energy and store energy in carbon compounds

347
Q

heterotrophs

A

receive nutrients by eating organisms

348
Q

decomposers/detritivores

A

break down dead organisms

349
Q

production efficiency

A

percentage of energy assimilated by an organism that becomes incorporated into new biomass

350
Q

trophic-level transfer efficiency

A

amount of energy acquired by higher trophic level and incorporated into biomass
-always lose some energy (via heat) between trophic levels

351
Q

net primary production

A

gross primary production - cellular respiration

-amount of energy available for consumers

352
Q

biodiversity

A

genetic diversity of species, the variety of species, and the different ecosystems they form

353
Q

conservation biology

A

uses principles of molecular biology, genetics, and ecology to protect biodiversity at each different level

354
Q

Why conserve biodiversity?

A
  • food, medicine
  • ecosystem services
  • ethics
  • reduced biodiversity leads to reduced ecosystem functioning
355
Q

introduced species

A

moved to non-native area

356
Q

invasive species

A

introduced species that outcompetes native species

357
Q

phenology

A

timing of life events

358
Q

inbreeding

A

mating of genetically related relatives

-causes reduced fitness and survival

359
Q

Allee effect

A

decline in reproduction and survival in small populations

  • harder to find mate
  • reduced genetic diversity
360
Q

SLOSS debate?

A

single large or several small reserves

361
Q

flagship species

A

large, charismatic species with public support

362
Q

keystone species

A

large ecological role in proportion to abundance/biomass

Brooke Comprehensive Exam (9 decks)

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