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BMAT Section 2 > Biology > Flashcards

Biology Flashcards

1
Q

Function of the cell membrane

A

Protection and a fixed environment

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2
Q

Function of the cytoplasm

A

Site of chemical reactions

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3
Q

Functions of nucleus

A

Carries genetic information, cell controller

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4
Q

Function of mitochondrea

A

Site of respiration

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5
Q

Function of cell wall

A

(Only in plants)

Structure and support

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6
Q

Function of chloroplast

A

(Only in plants)

Capture energy for photosynthesis

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7
Q

Function of vacuole

A

(Only in plants)

Fluid filled membrane, storage function

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8
Q

Function of chromosomal DNA

A

(In prokaryotic cells)

Carry genetic information

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9
Q

Function of Plasmid DNA

A

(In prokaryotic cells)

Carry genetic advantages

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10
Q

Organisation of structures

A

Cells - tissues - organ - organ system

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11
Q

Definition of diffusion

A

Diffusion is the passive net movement of anything from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.
eg: Perfume in a room, gas exchange

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12
Q

Definition of osmosis

A

Net movement of water along a semi-permeable membrane.

eg: Soil absorption, salt in potatoes

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13
Q

Definition of active transport

A

Movement of a substance against a concentration gradient using a carrier protein.
eg: Glucose intake in intestines, root hair cell

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14
Q

What is mitosis

A

Interphase, followed by PMATC (mitosis) to produce genetically identical daughter cells

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15
Q

Mitosis plays a role in…

A

Repair, growth and asexual reproduction

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16
Q

Cancer is the result of…

A

Changes in cells that lead to uncontrolled cell growth and division (mutations)

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17
Q

What is meiosis

A

Interphase followed by two consecutive divisions to produce a haploid nucleus - 4 genetically different daughter cells

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18
Q

Meiosis and chromosome number

A

Initially reduces chromosome number which is later restored at fertilisation

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19
Q

Asexual reproduction results in…

A

Identical offspring, given no mutations, from one parent

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20
Q

Sexual reproduction results in…

A

Genetically different offspring, resulting from 2 parents and 2 haploid nuclei

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21
Q

Female chromosomes

A

XX

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22
Q

Male chromosomes

A

XY

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23
Q

Gene definition

A

Unit of hereditary, part of a chromosome

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24
Q

Allele definition

A

Alternative form of a gene

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25
Q

Dominant definition

A

Always expressed

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26
Q

Recessive definition

A

Expressed in the absence of a dominant gene

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27
Q

Heterozygous definition

A

Different alleles

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28
Q

Homozygous definition

A

Same alleles

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29
Q

Phenotype definition

A

Observable characteristics from the genotype

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30
Q

Genotype definition

A

Genetic constitution of an individual

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31
Q

Chromosomes

A

Made up of proteins and DNA organized into genes. Each cell normally contains 23 pairs of chromosomes

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32
Q

Inherited conditions are typically…

A

Recessive, inherited from 2 carrier parents

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33
Q

Phenotype features are the result of…

A

Multiple gene inheritance rather than single genes

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34
Q

What is the genome

A

The entire genetic material of an organism

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35
Q

DNA structure

A

Polymer, made up of 2 strands forming a double helix

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36
Q

Contents of nucleotide

A

Common sugar, phosphate group and a base

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37
Q

What are the 4 bases

A

Adenine(L), Thymine (2 bonds), Cytosine and Guanine(L) (3 bonds)

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38
Q

Protein synthesis overview

A

Genes carry the code for proteins, the code is read in triplets (each triplet coding for one amino acid) which are then ordered and folded to form a protein

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39
Q

Gene mutations

A

Change in the DNA, and don’t always affect the phenotype because DNA is degenerate

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40
Q

Genetic engineering overview

A
  1. Taking a copy of a gene from DNA/ chromosomes of 1 organism
  2. Insertion of that gene into the DNA of another organism
  3. Involves restriction enzymes (cutting) and ligases (sticking) as well as a vector for transport
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41
Q

Embryonic stem cells…

A

Can give rise to ANY cell type, but cells loose the ability to differentiate as the animal matures

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42
Q

Stem cell function

A

Provide new cells for growth or replace damaged cells

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43
Q

Adult stem cell function

A

Regenerate damaged tissues, but specifically to a specialised tissue

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44
Q

Variation within a population is usually…

A

Genetically extensive

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45
Q

Evolution definition

A

Change in the inherited characteristics of a population over time through a process of natural selection and a change in allele frequency that MAY result in the formation of a new species

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46
Q

Types of variation

A

Genetic/ inherited or it can be environmental (affecting the phenotype)

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47
Q

Enzymes are…

A

Biological catalysts

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48
Q

Enzyme mechanism

A

Lock and key, enzyme substrate theory - Specific active site with a binding site on the substrate

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49
Q

Temperature on enzymes

A

Increase the reaction rate to the optimum, beyond which the enzymes will denature and the reaction rate will drop dramatically

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50
Q

pH on enzymes

A

Increase the reaction rate to an optimum, beyond which the enzymes will denature and the reaction rate will drop dramatically

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51
Q

Amylase is produced and found in the…

A

Salivary glands and the pancreas

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52
Q

Proteases are produced and found…

A

Stomach, pancreas and small intestine

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53
Q

Lipases are produced and found…

A

Pancreas, mouth and stomach

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54
Q

Function of amylase

A

Breaks bonds in starches/ polysaccharides into simple sugars

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55
Q

Function of protease

A

Digests protein into amino acids

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56
Q

Function of lipase

A

Breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol

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57
Q

Cellular respiration

A

Exchange of CO2 for O2

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58
Q

Aerobic respiration equation

A

C6H12O6 + O2 -> CO2 + H2O. Mostly occurring in mitochondria, in wealth of O2

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59
Q

Anaerobic respiration

A

Converts glucose into lactic acid and energy.

C6H12O6 -> 2C3H603 + 2ATP. No wealth of O2 means small quantities of energy.

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60
Q

CNS is comprised of

A

Brain and spinal cord

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61
Q

Sensory neurones

A

Receptor - axon - body - dendron. Sends electrical impulses to a relay neuron which is located in the spinal cord

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62
Q

Relay neurones

A

Dendrite - body - Axon. Connect sensory neurones to motor neurones

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63
Q

Motor neurones

A

Dendrite - body - axon. Connects to an effector

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64
Q

Synapse function

A

1st dendrite receives an electrical impulse at end of axon, neurotransmitters are released, chemicals diffuse across the synapse, binds to the receptor molecules on the 2nd neuron membrane and stimulates second impulse

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65
Q

Reflex arc

A

Spontaneous, quick reaction, no conscious brain involvement. Stimulus - Receptor - Sensory neurone - Relay - Motor - Effector - Response

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66
Q

How do the lungs work?

A

Low pressure inside the intercostal space pulls air inwards as the diaphragm contracts, moves downwards and the intercostal muscles contract

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67
Q

High surface area: Volume ratio =

A

Efficient gas exchange

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68
Q

Circulatory system order, starting from the Left Atrium

A

LA - LV - A - BODY - VC - RA - RV - PA - PV - LA

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69
Q

Composition of the blood

A

RBCs (O2), WBCs (Antibody production + phagocytosis), Platelets (Blood clotting) and Plasma (transport of blood components and dissolved substances like CO2, urea and heat)

70
Q

Order of digestive system

A

Oesophagus, stomach, gallbladder, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Pancreas secretes digestive enzymes on the way.

71
Q

Function of oesophagus

A

Muscular tube to the stomach

72
Q

Function of stomach

A

Digestion

73
Q

Function of gallbladder

A

Stores liver bile

74
Q

Function of small intestine

A

Mixes food with enzymes and bile

75
Q

Function of large intestine

A

Reabsorption of water

76
Q

Function of rectum

A

Stores faeces

77
Q

Function of anus

A

Excretes faeces

78
Q

Peristalsis

A

Muscle contractions to move food along, begins in the oesophagus when a food bolus is swallowed

79
Q

Digestion

A

Turns food into nutrients and energy for growth and cell repair

80
Q

Absorption

A

Movement of nutrients, water and electrolytes from the lumen of the small intestine into the cell and blood

81
Q

Egestion

A

Discharge of undigested food as faeces

82
Q

Kidney purpose

A

Regulate water content and remove toxic waste

83
Q

Kidney function in the nephron

A

Unafiltration in the Bowman’s capsule of salts, glucose (high pressure), the selective reabsorption of glucose, salts and lots of water at the loop of Henle before final reabsorption of more/ less water.

84
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

Maintenance of a constant internal environment

85
Q

Negative feedback

A

Output function tends to reduce fluctuation if other output

86
Q

Function of insulin

A

Encourages body cells to take up glucose to store it as glycogen - causes a decrease in blood sugar levels

87
Q

Function of glucagon

A

Turns glycogen into glucose in blood

88
Q

T1 diabetes

A

Pancreas doesn’t and NEVER does produce insulin

89
Q

T2 diabetes

A

Body cells don’t respond to insulin anymore

90
Q

Hormones when there is too little water in the blood

A

Pituitary releases ADH, causes kidneys to reabsorb water and there is less urine

91
Q

Hormones when there is too much water in the blood

A

Less ADH released, so the kidneys don’t reabsorb water and there is more urine

92
Q

Function of thyroxine

A

Controls metabolic rate

93
Q

How does thyroxine work?

A

Low levels - hippocampus released TRH - Pituitary releases TSH - thyroid releases thyroxine - faster O2 and food conversion

94
Q

Function of adrenaline

A

Controls heart rate, breathing, blood pressure and hastens the conversion of glycogen to glucose

95
Q

How does adrenaline work?

A

Released by adrenal gland when a fight/ flight response is triggered

96
Q

FSH (Found and function)

A

Released from pituitary gland, stimulates egg maturation and ovary stimulation for oestrogen

97
Q

Oestrogen (Found and function)

A

Ovaries, stops FSH production, thickens uterus lining and stimulates the pituitary gland for LH

98
Q

LH (Found and function)

A

Pituitary, triggers ovulation

99
Q

Progesterone (Found and function)

A

Ovaries, maintains lining

100
Q

Hormonal contraception

A

Contains oestrogen and progesterone, so no FSH produced = no egg maturity

101
Q

Non-hormonal (IUD)

A

No embryo implantation, physical barrier/ spermicides

102
Q

Organisation in ecosystems

A

Individual - Populations - Communities - Ecosystems

103
Q

Why is interdependence in ecosystems important?

A

Competition for a limited supply

104
Q

3 examples of interdependence in ecosystems

A

Predation, mutualism and parasitism

105
Q

Location and function of chromosomal DNA

A

Bacteria, circular coiled molecule of double stranded DNA with no nucleus, carries genetic information to regulate cell processes

106
Q

Specialised cells have one particular job, what features allow them to undertake this?

A

Distinct shape, specific chemical reactions in their cytoplasm

107
Q

How are ciliated cells specialised?

A

Small hairs, closely packed to protect lungs from infection

108
Q

How are red blood cells specialised?

A

Biconcave shape for a larger surface area, haemoglobin and no nucleus

109
Q

How is a sperm cell specialised?

A

Haploid nucleus, acrosome and mitochondrial section

110
Q

General adaptations of a neurone

A

Elongated, and an ability to conduct chemical signals along the fibre

111
Q

Specialisation of root hair cell

A

Elongated for a large surface area for absorption of mineral ions and water from soil

112
Q

Factors that affect the rate of diffusion

A

Concentration, temperature, distance, size, surface area

113
Q

Kidney dialysis machine function?

A

Using diffusion through a membrane to regulate the composition of the patient’s blood - Removes urea, uric acid and excess salts

114
Q

What is active transport?

A

Low conc. to high conc. transport, using ATP gained from respiration, achieved by the assistance of channel proteins in the cell membrane

115
Q

Daughter cells produced by mitosis

A

Are genetically identical to each other, are genetically identical to the parent cell which produced them, have the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell

116
Q

What happens during interphase

A

The cell grows, the chromosomes in the nucleus are replicated, the cell respires to provide energy for mitosis

117
Q

How does a bacterium reproduce?

A

Binary fission

118
Q

What is the importance of genetically different offspring?

A

Maintains genetic variation which is essential for natural selection which subsequently ensures the survival of species over time - genetic variety also reduces the rate at which recessive conditions are inherited

119
Q

Why is sexual reproduction important?

A

Maintains genetic variety essential for natural selection and the continuation of species - as well as lowering the rate at which recessive conditions are inherited

120
Q

Why do males need to inherit one Y chromosome for development?

A

The chromosome contains the genes essential for male development

121
Q

Why is DNA sometimes called a polynucleotide?

A

The monomer unit is a nucleotide

122
Q

How are proteins and enzymes related?

A

Enzymes are proteins - and a very good example of how specific protein structures have to be as the enzymes have active sites complimentary to their respective substrates - a mutation may change this structure and go on to change the phenotype

123
Q

Why do most mutations not have an effect on the phenotype of an organism

A

Large sections of DNA do not code for proteins (introns)

124
Q

What is a silent mutation?

A

Mutation that alters the genotype but has no effect on the phenotype (degenerate nature of DNA)

125
Q

Overall process of gene editing

A

Gene of interest cut from DNA using restriction enzymes which leave sticky ends of DNA, which match to the sticky ends created on the organism (same restriction enzyme), these are then mixed and hydrogen bonds form to pair the complimentary sticky ends to one another - Ligase is used to join the nucleotides together - This recombinant DNA is inserted into the cell using a Vector

126
Q

Examples of proteins produced by genetically modified bacteria

A

Hormones - Insulin
Antibiotics - Penicillin
Enzymes - Rennin for cheese production
Blood clotting factors - VIII for haemophilia

127
Q

What is a Ti plasmid?

A

Type of bacterial plasmid that can enter plant cells and insert itself in the genome

128
Q

Totipotency

A

Can produce all - including placental - human cells

129
Q

Pluripotency

A

Can produce all - except placental - human cells

130
Q

Multipotent

A

Specialised to divide only into one type of cell

131
Q

Risks of stem cell treatment

A

Cancer development and

rejection by the immune system (transplanted cells are identified as foreign)

132
Q

What is an iPSC

A

Induced pluripotent stem cell

133
Q

Main disadvantage of selective breeding

A

Reduces genetic variation - less adaptable and higher chance of genetic conditions

134
Q

What is the induced fit theory

A

The active site is a specific shape and only catalyses one reaction - the specific substrate alters the shape of the active site when it enters to make the reaction progress more efficiently

135
Q

Intra and extracellular enzymes

A

Intra - inside cells and involved with respiration/ photosynthesis
Extra - digestive enzymes that work outside of the cell

136
Q

What is a reflex arc and what is it used for?

A

Quick response that omits the processing response of the brain (stimulus, receptor, sensory, relay, motor, effector)

137
Q

What happens during inhalation?

A

Intercostal muscles contract and pull the ribs up and outwards.
The diaphragm contracts and flattens downwards.
This increases volume within the thoracic cavity.
This lowers the air pressure inside the thoracic cavity compared to outside the body.
Air from outside the body enters the lungs via the trachea and bronchi to equalise the pressure.

138
Q

What happens during exhalation?

A

Intercostal muscles relax and pull the ribs down and inwards.
The diaphragm relaxes and becomes domed.
This decreases the volume within the thoracic cavity.
This reduced volume increases the air pressure inside the thoracic cavity compared to outside the body.
Air from inside the lungs is forced out of the body through the bronchi and trachea to equalise the pressure.

139
Q

Organs and their blood vessel names

A

Heart - Coronary
Lungs - Pulmonary
Liver - Hepatic
Kidneys - Renal

140
Q

Phagocyte function

A

Ingest or engulf pathogens and digest them using enzymes to prevent damage to body cells.

141
Q

Lymphocyte function

A

Produce antibodies, proteins that target antigens on bacteria and viruses, destroying them. Some lymphocytes form memory cells.

142
Q

What is peristalsis?

A

Waves of muscular contractions that move food along the oesophagus

143
Q

2 types of digestion

A

Mechanical – teeth grinding, stomach churning

Chemical – using bile and enzymes which are produced by specialised cells in glands and tissues in the gut lining.

144
Q

Excretion organs and their function

A

Liver - excess amino acids and haemoglobin into bilirubin
Lungs - CO2
Skin - Sweat (not strictly excretory organ)
Kidney - Removal of urea and adjustment of ion/ water content

145
Q

Path through a kidney

A

A kidney is composed of three main regions: the cortex, medulla and pelvis.

Blood enters a kidney through a renal artery.

This divides into arterioles and capillaries in the cortex.

Each capillary becomes knotted to form a glomerulus, which is surrounded by a Bowman’s capsule.

This leads to a convoluted tubule. The proximal convoluted tubule passes down into the medulla, where it forms the loop of Henle, returning to a distal convoluted tubule in the cortex again.

The tubule joins a collecting duct, which passes down through the medulla into the pelvis of the kidney.

146
Q

Function of the nephron

A

The wall of the capillary of the glomerulus acts as a filter. As the blood enters the glomerulus, its pressure increases.

Large structures (blood cells) and large molecules, e.g. plasma proteins, are retained within the capillary, but smaller molecules (water, dissolved salts (ions), glucose and urea) are forced out by ultrafiltration. This is filtration under pressure.

The filtrate is collected by the renal capsule and passes into the renal tubule.

As the filtrate passes along the tubule, selective reabsorption takes place into the capillaries surrounding the tubule.

Glucose is reabsorbed by diffusion and active transport.

Water is reabsorbed by osmosis, along with some salts by diffusion and active transport to maintain the correct concentration in the blood.

Salts not needed by the body, along with urea and uric acid, continue along the tubule into a collecting duct in the medulla.

The collecting duct delivers the filtrate to the pelvis of the kidney, where the fluid (urine) passes into a ureter to transfer it to the bladder for storage.

Urine is retained in the bladder by a sphincter muscle at its base.

When the sphincter muscle relaxes, the muscle wall of the bladder contracts to expel the urine (a process called urination) through the urethra.

147
Q

Rising blood glucose triggers

A

A release of insulin to stimulate the liver to convert glucose to glycogen

148
Q

Falling blood glucose triggers

A

Glucagon to convert glycogen stores back into glucose

149
Q

Low water content

A

Hypothalamus triggers pituitary to release more ADH and cause more kidney reabsorbtion

150
Q

Thermoregulation when body is too hot (example of negative feedback)

A

Arterioles dilate (hypothalamus activated), more sweat and vasodilation

151
Q

Pituitary gland

A

Many hormones - can stimulate other glands to release hormones

152
Q

Thyroid

A

thyroxine - regulates metabolic rate, HR and temperature

153
Q

Adrenal gland

A

Adrenaline - fight/ flight response

154
Q

Pancreas

A

Insulin and glucagon - blood sugar regulation

155
Q

Ovary

A

Oestrogen and progesterone - menstrual cycle

156
Q

Low thyroxine…

A

Hypothalamus releases TRH, pituitary releases TSH and then thyroid releases thyroxine

157
Q

Adrenaline 4 functions

A

Stimulates conversion of glycogen to glucose, increases breathing rate, increases HR and stimulates blood flow to muscles

158
Q

FSH

A

Produced by pituitary gland and acts on target structures in the ovaries. Stimulates an ovary to develop a follicle containing an egg and to produce oestrogen

159
Q

Oestrogen

A

Produced by the ovaries and stimulates the uterus lining to thicken

160
Q

LH

A

Produced by the pituitary gland and acts on target structures in the ovary and stimulates the mature follicle to release the egg (ovulation) in the middle of the cycle (around day 14).

161
Q

Progesterone

A

Secreted by the corpus luteum and maintains the lining of the uterus during the second half of the cycle so that a fertilised egg may implant

162
Q

Oestrogen and progesterone inhibit the production of…

A

LH and FSH

163
Q

Falling progesterone triggers

A

Menstruation

164
Q

Sequence of medical testing

A

Medicine tested on animals, then phase 1 (few healthy people), then phase 2 (few ill patients) and then phase 3 (double-blind trial using a placebo)

165
Q

Statin function

A

They reduce the production of cholesterol, which is a component of atheroma. Build-up of atheroma can lead to blocked arteries.

166
Q

Anti-coagulants

A

They reduce the likelihood of blood clotting and therefore blocking an artery.

167
Q

Anti-hypertensive drugs

A

They can cause blood vessels to relax so their lumen diameter enlarges, reducing blood pressure.

168
Q

3 factors that cause the size of the population to change

A

Food supply, predation and disease (human factors like pollution and climate change also)

169
Q

Growth stages in the presence of a limiting factor

A

Lag phase, log phase, stationary phase and death phase

170
Q

Water cycle processes

A

Transpiration – plants release water vapour into the atmosphere, mainly through tiny pores called stomata in the leaves. The water evaporates inside the leaf before it is released.

Evaporation – occurs from the surface of bodies of water such as rivers, lakes and the sea.

Condensation – the water vapour in the atmosphere condenses to form clouds.

Precipitation – water in the clouds forms rain, snow, etc. which falls to the land and drains into water systems.

Osmosis – the process used by plant roots, bacteria and other organisms to take up water.

Excretion – from animals. Water is lost from animals in the form of sweat, exhaled air and urine. Faeces (a product of egestion not excretion) also contains some water.

BMAT Section 2 (4 decks)

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