Biological Sciences Flashcards
1
Q
Fats are broken down to two components that are used in cellular respiration:
A
glycerol and fatty acids
2
Q
How/where does glycerol enter the cellular respiration pathway?
A
glycerol is converted to one of the intermediate products of glycolysis
3
Q
How/where do fatty acids enter the cellular respiration pathway?
A
fatty acids are converted through beta-oxidation to acetyl coA and enter the Krebs cycle
4
Q
Myosin:
A
motor protein that moves along microfilament “tracks”
5
Q
Phospholipids:
A
non-polar tail region and polar phosphate head
6
Q
Cholesterol:
A
amphipathic molecule; maintains membrane rigidity at higher temperatures, fluidity at lower temperatures
7
Q
Nervous tissues:
A
neurons, glial cells
8
Q
Glial cells:
A
supporting cells of the nervous system (non-neurons): astrocytes, microglia, Schwann cells, oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells
9
Q
Ependymal cells:
A
found on the lining of the ventricles of the brain as well as the spinal cord’s central canal; could be classified as nervous or epithelial tissues
10
Q
Connective tissues:
A
include bone, cartilage, lymphatic tissue, fat (adipose tissue), tendons, and ligaments
11
Q
Muscle tissues:
A
any skeletal, smooth, or cardiac muscle cells
12
Q
Smooth muscle tissues fuction:
A
responsible for contractility of hollow organs, such as blood vessels or the bladder
13
Q
Paracrine communication:
A
local; signal molecules secreted by one cell bind to receptors on another
14
Q
Autocrine communication:
A
signal molecules secreted by a cell bind to receptors on that same cell
15
Q
Intacrine communication:
A
signal molecules (usually steroids) bind to receptors inside the same cells that produced them, without ever being secreted outside the cell
16
Q
Juxtacrine communication:
A
signaling required direct contact between two cells
17
Q
Glucose/fructose chemical formula:
A
C6H12O6
(glucose - aldehyde, fructose - ketone)
18
Q
Glucose polysaccharides:
A
glycogen, starch, cellulose
19
Q
Glycogen:
A
branched, alpha-linked glucose polymer, used for storage in animals
20
Q
Starch:
A
branched, alpha-linked glucose polymer, used for storage in plants
21
Q
Cellulose:
A
beta-linke glucose polymer, used for storage in plants, indigestible in animals without help from symbiotic bacteria
22
Q
2 important characteristics of peptide bonds:
A
- lack of rotation around the bond
- electron density is spread out between N, C, and O of the amide (resonance)
23
Q
1) Ending -ase means…
2) Ending *-tase *means…
A
1) Enzyme
2) ATP-requiring enzyme
24
Q
6 interactions responsible for tertiary protein structure:
A
1) hydrogen bonding
2) disulfide bonds
3) hydrophobic/hydrophilic interactions
4) ionic interactions
5) Van der Walls forces
6) proline turns
25
5 kinds of lipids:
1) fatty acids
2) triacylglycerols
3) phospholipids
4) steroids
5) glycolipids
26
Amphipathic lipids:
fatty acids, phospholipids, glycolipids
27
3 components of a nucleotide:
sugar backbone, nitrogenous base, phosphate group
28
What are some common nucleotides?
DNA, RNA, cAMP, NADH, FADH2, FMN, Coenzyme A, ATP, GTP, UTP
29
Order of metabolism:
healthy individuals burn carbohydrates first, then fats, then proteins
30
Amino acid order of deprotonation:
1) carboxylic acid hydrogen
2) any acidic hydrogen on R-group
3) amine group hydrogen
31
Lac operon - glucose present:
Low levels of cAMP, CAP inactive, doesn't bind to DNA, RNA polymerase doesn't bind to promoter
32
Lac operon - lactose present:
binds to inhibitor, inhibitor cannot bind to operator site, RNA polymerase can bind to promoter
33
Lac operon - 3 upstream sites in order:
CAP, promoter, operator
34
DNA polymerase reads the template strand in the __ to __ direction:
3', 5'
35
During translation, mRNA is read (by ribosomes) in the __ to __ direction.
5', 3'
36
Missense mutation (DNA):
a mutation that changes the codon such that a different amino acid will be incorporated
37
Silent mutation (DNA):
any mutation that does NOT alter the amino acid sequence
38
Frameshift mutation (DNA):
any mutation that changes the reading frame
39
Nonsense mutation (DNA):
a mutation that changes a normal codon into a premature stop codon
40
P1 generation (genetics):
first homozygous parental generation
41
F1 generation (genetics):
offspring from P1; heterozygous
42
F2 generation (genetics):
offspring of F1 generation; 3:1 phenotypic ratio (Mendelian ratio) and 1:2:1 genotypic ratio
43
Incomplete dominance (genetics):
ex: RR gives red flowers, rr gives white flowers, Rr gives pink flowers
44
Co-dominance (genetics):
ex: RR gives red flowers, rr gives white flowers, Rr gives red and white striped flowers
45
Incomplete penetrance (genetics):
various individuals all have identical genotypes and yet some get the disease phenotype and others do not
46
Limited expressivity (genetics):
various individuals all have the same genotype AND all of them have the disease phenotype (i.e., 100% penetrance), but individuals are impacted in varying degrees
47
Polygenic (genetics):
many genes contribute toward one phenotypic trait
48
Pleiotropy (genetics):
one single gene contributes to multiple phenotypic traits
49
Mosaicism (genetics):
different cells within the same individual contain non-identical genotypes
50
Genetic imprinting:
one specific gene is expressed differently depending on which parent it originated from
51
Epigenetic:
any heritable phenotype resulting from any process other than a change in the DNA sequence itself (ex: factors affecting gene expression)
52
Linkage (genetics):
two genes are close enough to each other on the same chromosome that it is unlikely a crossing over event will occur exactly between them
53
Polymorphisms:
random variations in genetic sequence among individuals that create variable forms; usually due to mutation, and may or may not be increasingly represented in future generations depending on whether or not that particular variation in form provides an evolutionary fitness advantage
54
Speciation:
the formation of new species from existing ones
55
Adaptive radiation (genetics):
the rapid formation of a variety of species from one ancestral species—usually characterized by a strong environment-species connection (ex: one species of turtle migrated to five different environments and rapidly formed five different species based on natural selection driven by the unique characteristics of each environment)
56
Evolutionary bottleneck:
sudden decrease in the number of individuals in a population
57
Genetic drift:
a change in the allele frequency within a population due to random, non-genetic, non-selective factors (ex: meteorite striking the earth)
58
Carrying capacity:
maximum number of individuals an ecosystem or environment can sustain
59
Hardy-Weinberg formulas:
p + q = 1
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
60
What do *p* and *q* represent (Hardy-Weinberg)?
the fractions of p and q _alleles_ in the population
61
What do *p2*, *q2* and *2pg* represent (Hardy-Weinberg)?
fractions of _individuals_ with each possible genotype
62
What does *p2* represent (Hardy-Weinberg)?
the fraction of individuals who have the homozygous dominant genotype
63
What does *q2* represent (Hardy-Weinberg)?
the fraction of individuals with the homozygous recessive genotype
64
What does *2pg* represent (Hardy-Weinberg)?
the fraction of individuals with the heterozygous genotype
65
Taxonomical classification levels:
kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species (mnemonic: *King Phillip cried out for good soup*)
66
Human taxonomy:
Animalia, Chordata, Mammalia, Primates, Hominidae, Homo, (Homo) sapiens (mnemonic: *All cool men prefer healthy hot sex*)
67
Heterotrophs:
cannot fix CO2 and therefore must ingest organic molecules such as carbohydrates as their carbon source
68
Chemotrophs:
oxidize organic or inorganic compounds to harvest energy
69
Phototrophs:
can capture their own energy directly from the sun via photosynthesis
70
Autotrophs:
capable of fixing CO2 and can therefore use CO2 as their carbon source for synthesizing organic molecules
71
Viruses:
viruses are acellular and cannot survive, grow or reproduce on their own; they require a host to accomplish most if not all of the functions we normally associate with “living things”
72
Major components of all viruses:
nucleic acid (DNA or RNA but never both) and proteins
73
Enveloped viruses structure:
small circular membranes surrounding a protein capsid and the nucleic acid
74
Retrovirus:
contains a specific enzyme called reverse transcriptase that can translate its RNA nucleotide sequence into DNA (because RNA could not be incorporated into the host’s genome)
75
Bacterial transformation:
a bacteria picks up DNA from the environment and incorporates it into its own DNA
76
Bacterial transduction:
viruses accidentally incorporate host genetic material into their nucleic acids
77
Gram postive bacteria (purple):
thick cell wall, single cell membrane, form endospores
78
Gram negative bacteria (pink):
thin cell wall, two cell membranes (one inside the cell wall, one outside), do not form endospores
79
Endospore:
dormant, tough, and non-reproductive structure produced by certain bacteria
80
*sp* hybridized shape:
linear
81
*sp2* hybridized shape:
trigonal planar, bent
82
*sp3* hybridized shape:
tetrahedral, trigonal pyramidal
83
Boron and beryllium are stable with only __ electrons in their valence shells.
6
84
Formal charge =
of valence electrons - (non-bonded electrons + # of bonds)
85
Ester functional group:
O
||
R -- C -- OR
(-oate ending, H-bond recipients but not donors)
86
Amine functional group:
R -- NH2
(act as bases or nucleophiles, basicity decreases from tertiary-primary, capable of hydrogen bonding)
87
Amide functional group:
O
||
R -- C -- NR2
(carbonyl carbons unreactive, can hydrogen bond, resonance limits rotation)
88
Anhydride functional group:
O O
|| ||
R -- C -- O -- C -- R
(the 2 carbonyl carbons are highly reactive because leaving group is resonance-stabilized carboxylate ion)
89
Aryl functional group:
aromatic ring -- R
90
Hydrazide functional group:
NH2 -- NH -- R
91
Nitrile functional group:
R -- C _=_ N
92
Imine functional group:
N -- R
||
R -- C -- R
93
Enamine functional group:
C = C -- N
94
Sulphone functional group:
O = S = O
/ \
R R
95
Acetal functional group:
two ethers on same carbon
RO -- CH -- OR
96
Ketal functional group:
two ethers on same carbon
RO -- C -- OR
97
Hemiacetal functional group:
RO
|
R -- CH -- OH
98
Hemiketal functional group:
RO -- C -- OH
99
Optically active (O-chem):
a substance does rotate plane-polarized light
100
Racemic mixture (O-chem):
a 50/50 mix of the two absolute configurations of a compound (R and S)
101
Epimers:
diastereomers that differ at only one chiral center
102
Anomers:
molecules that differ only in their spatial orientation at the anomeric carbon (bonded to the 2 oxygens) of a ring structure
103
Decarboxylation:
R-carboxylic acid → R + CO2
104
IR absorbance - carbonyl C=O:
1700 cm-1; sharp, deep
105
IR absorbance - alcohol, OH:
3300 cm-1; broad, separate from CH
106
IR absorbance - saturate alkane, CH:
2800 cm-1; sharp, deep
107
IR absorbance - carboxylic acid, OH:
3000 cm-1; broad, overlaps CH
108
IR absorbance - amine, NH:
3300 cm-1; broad, shallow
109
IR absorbance - amide, NH:
3300 cm-1; broad, deep
110
IR absorbance - nitriles, C_=_N:
2250 cm-1; sharp, deep
111
Sec-butyl:
-- CHCH2CH3
|
CH3
112
Isobutyl:
-- CH2CHCH3
|
CH3
113
Tert-butyl:
CH3
|
-- C -- CH3
|
CH3
114
IR spectroscopy:
when vibrational frequencies of _dipolar bonds_ match the frequency of IR radiation, the bond will absorb some of the IR energy
115
IR spectroscopy - The vibrational frequency of a dipolar bond is determined by:
1. strength of the bond (weaker = lower frequency)
2. molecular weight of the atoms involved in the bond (larger atom = lower frequency)
116
UV spectroscopy:
electrons within a molecule absorb the energy of electromagnetic radiation and "excite" to a higher energy level
- only single bonds = low or no absorbance
- increasing absorbance: double \< triple \< conjugated bonds
117
Mass spectrometry:
molecule bombarded with electrons and fragmented, accelerated through a narrow curved magnet, strength of magnetic field increased until all fragments follow curved path into a detector
118
NMR spectroscopy:
an atom must have either an odd atomic number or an odd mass number to register on an NMR
119
What is Rf? (thin-layer chromatography)
distance traveled by component / distance traveled by solvent
120
A __ abstracts a proton and a __ attacks a carbon.
base, nucleophile
121
E1 reaction:
1. leaving group dissociates, forming carbocation (slow step)
2. proton abstracted, double bond formed (fast step)
122
E2 reaction:
1. proton abstracted, double bond forms, leaving group ejected
123
An E\_ reaction requires a strong base, while an E\_ does not.
2, 1
124
Sn1 reaction:
1. leaving group dissociates, carbocation formed (slow step)
2. attack of carbocation by nucleophile (fast step)
125
Sn2 reaction:
1. "back-side attack" of the electrophile, leaving group simultaneously ejected
126
Which halides react with alkanes in radical halogenation?
fluorine, chlorine, bromine
127
Halogen reactivity:
F \> Cl \> Br
(bond mostly to least-substitued carbon)
128
Halogen selectivity:
Br \> Cl \> F
| (bond mostly to most-substitued carbon)
129
Hydrogenation (addition reaction):
C=C + H2 + metal catalyst = CH3CH3
| (syn reaction)
130
Hydrogen bond acceptors:
N, O or F with at least one lone pair of electrons
131
Hydrogen bond donors:
H connected to a highly electronegative atom, such as N, O or F
132
Zaitsev's rule:
the major product of an elimination reaction is the more substituted alkene
133
Alcohol acidity:
1. alcohols are less acidic than water
2. alcohol acidity increases from tertiary to secondary to primary
134
SN2 formation of alkyl halide from an alcohol:
(for UN, 1o or 2o alcohols)
1. CH3OH + HX → CH3OH2+ + X-
2. X- attacks central carbon, water molecule ejected
135
SN1 formation of alkyl halide from an alcohol:
(for 3o alcohols)
1. R3OH + HX → CH3OH2+ + X-
2. water dissociates, carbocation formation (rate limiting step)
3. X- attacks the carbocation
136
Oxidation of alcohol:
1o alcohols → aldehydes → carboxylic acids
2o alcohols → ketones
3o alcohols → cannot be oxidized
137
Pinacol rearrangement:
vic-diol + hot acid → ketone (tetra-sub) or aldehyde (tri-sub)
138
Protection of alcohols:
protect alcohols from oxidation while still allowing reaction to occur with other functional groups on molecule (O-H → O-protection + H+ → O-H)
139
Inorganic substitutions:
ROH + SOCl2 or PBr3 → RCl or RBr
140
Formation of tosylates/mesylates:
Tosyl/Mesyl-Cl + ROH → Tosyl/Mesyl-OR + HCl
(SN2 reaction)
141
Acid-catalyzed dehydration (elimination reaction):
1. protonation of alcohol
2. 'leaving group' leaves, forming carbocation (E1 only)
3. water molecules takes a proton, electrons collapse to form double bond (ejecting leaving group in E2)
142
Grignard Synthesis:
- produces an alcohol by adding RMgX to a carbonyl
- R acts as carbanion, attacks electrophilic carbonyl carbon, breaks double bond, negatively charged O is protonated to form alcohol
143
Ether properties:
very non-reactive, weakly polar, low boiling points, excellent solvents
144
Substitution of an epoxide:
forms alcohol - severe ring strain, reaction can proceed via SN1 or SN2
145
Excretory system functions:
- excrete liquid and solute wastes, e.g., water, excess salts, nitrogenous waste
- maintain pH, osmolarity, blood pressure
146
Osmolarity:
number of osmoles of solute per liter
147
Osmole:
the amount of solute that dissociates in solution to form one mole of particles (molecules and ions)
148
Net effect of aldosterone on kidney function:
water retention and increased blood pressure
149
Net effect of ADH on kidney function:
water retention and increased blood pressure
150
Respiratory system functions:
gas exchange at alveoli - chemiosmosis of oxygen to blood, CO2 out of blood back into lungs
151
Inhalation - path of air:
mouth/nose → pharynx → larynx → trachea → bronchi → bronchioles → alveoli
152
The diaphragm moves __ when it is flexed and __ when it is relaxed.
down, up
153
The diaphragm moves down during __ and up during \_\_.
inhalation, exhalation
154
Hemoglobin:
protein made of four protein chains, each with one heme, each heme holding one O2 molecule
155
How CO2 is carried in the blood:
CO2 + H2O → HCO3- + H+
156
Functions of the cardiovascular system:
- deliver oxygen and nutrients to the cells and tissues of the body
- pick up CO2 and waste products and deliver them to lungs and kidneys
157
Arteries __ the heart, veins __ the heart.
leave, return to
158
Systemic circulation:
blood flows from the left ventricle, through the arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins, vena cava and back to the right atrium
159
Pulmonary circulation:
blood flows from the right ventricle, through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs and back through the pulmonary veins to the left atrium
160
Blood vessels:
arteries → arterioles → capillaries → venules → veins
161
Erythrocytes:
(red blood cells) essentially membrane-bound sacks of hemoglobin, mature RBCs have no nucleus or other organelles
162
Leukocytes:
(white blood cells) no hemoglobin, normal cells with all their organelles
163
Granulocytes:
these cells live for hours to days
164
Agranulocytes:
these cells live for months to years
165
Hematopoiesis:
development of all blood cells from stem cells in the bone marrow
166
Platelets:
tiny, membrane-bound drops of cytoplasm
167
Antigens:
any substance that causes your immune system to produce antibodies against it
168
Four blood types:
A, B, AB, O
169
Antigens present on blood cell membranes:
Type A - A antigens only
Type B - B antigens only
Type AB - Both A and B antigens
Type O - neither A nor B antigens
170
Universal blood donor:
Type O (no antigens)
171
Universal blood recipient:
Type AB (donor antigens will be A, B or none)
172
Function of lymphatic system:
- gather excess interstitial fluid and return it to blood
- remove from interstitial spaces proteins and other molecules too big to be taken up by the capillaries
- monitor the blood and lymph for infection
173
Lymph nodes are filled with \_\_.
lymphocytes
174
Two main lymphatic vessels:
1. right lymphatic duct
2. thoracic duct
(both merge with large veins in lower portion of neck)
175
The nervous system includes:
brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, neural support cells, sensory organs such as eyes and ears
176
Neurons depends entirely on __ for energy.
glucose
177
Neurons have very low __ and thus require high \_\_.
glycogen & oxygen storage capability, blood flow
178
Perfusion:
blood flow
179
Neural impulses can only flow in one direction:
cell body to synapse
180
T/F - The action potential that arrives at the terminal button is the same stimulus that begins at the dendrites.
False
181
Resting potential value:
-70 mV
182
Action potential:
a dramatic change in the resting electrical potential across the membrane of a nerve cell
183
Sodium/potassium pump:
3 Na+ ions out, 2 K+ ions in; net effect is more positive charge outside, more negative charge inside
184
Voltage-gated sodium channels:
integral proteins that change shape when resting potential disturbed; when 'open,' Na+ rushes back into cell
185
Depolarization:
spike in membrane potential when voltage-gated channels opened, from -70 mV to approx +40 mV
186
Threshold potential (to trigger full action potential):
-55 mV
187
Voltage-gated potassium channels:
react to (almost) maximum depolarization, open and begin to send K+ ions back outside the cell
188
Repolarization:
open potassium channels decreases membrane potential from 40 mV back to -70 mV
189
Hyperpolarization:
membrane potential temporarily dips to approx -90 mV as resting potential is restored
190
Absolute refractory period:
a second stimulus cannot initiate a response in the neuron until the membrane is repolarized
191
Effector (CNS):
the membrane of a muscle or other target (not another neuron) of a neurotransmitter
192
Voltage-gated calcium channels:
when action potential arrives at presynaptic membrane, channels triggered to allow calcium flow into cell - Ca+ ion increases triggers activity of neurotransmitter bundles
193
Acetylcholinesterase:
enzyme in the synaptic cleft that breaks down neurotransmitters (stopping the signal)
194
Afferent neurons:
sensory neurons
195
Efferent neurons:
motor neurons
196
Interneurons:
connect afferent and efferent neurons (the brain and 90% of all other neurons are interneurons)
197
Sympathetic:
"fight or flight"
198
Parasympathetic:
"rest and digest"
199
Somatic nervous cells:
voluntary, innervate skeletal muscle
200
Autonomic nervous cells:
involuntary, innervate cardiac muscle, smooth muscle and glands
201
Sympathetic neurotransmitter:
acetylcholine at the ganglia, norepinephrine at the effector
202
Parasympathetic neurotransmitter:
acetylcholine
203
Rods:
highly sensitive, perceive black & white only
204
Cones:
less sensitive than rods, perceive color
205
The ciliary muscles __ to __ the curvature of the lens.
contract, increase
206
Outer ear:
pinna (earlobe), auditory canal
207
Middle ear:
tympanic membrane (eardrum), 3 middle ear bones: malleu, incus & stapes
208
Inner ear:
cochlea, semicircular canals, vestibulocochlear nerve
209
Exocrine glands:
release enzymes and other liquids into the body's external environment
210
Endocrine glands:
release hormones into the internal fluids of the body (blood, lymph, etc.)
211
All steroids are __ derivatives.
cholesterol
212
Transport: Lipid-soluble hormones require:
a protein carrier or micelle/vesicle
213
Transport: Peptide hormones:
water-soluble, readily dissolve in blood
214
Target: Lipid-soluble hormones act almost exclusively:
on or inside the nucleus
215
Target: Peptide hormones:
act on a variety of cell locations
216
T/F - Lipid-soluble hormones require a cell membrane receptor.
false
217
Function of hormones:
return the body to homeostatic ("normal") conditions
218
The ability to "fix" carbon is...
the ability to capture CO2 and integrate that carbon into larger macromolecules
219
Digestive system function:
physical digestion - separate food molecules from each other
chemical digestion - break molecules into their monomers for absorption
220
Chemical digestion in the mouth acts on __ only via the enzyme \_\_.
carbohydrates, amylase
221
Epiglottis:
"closes" when swallowing, allowing food/liquid down esophagus only
222
The __ is the first site of protein digestion:
stomach
223
The enzyme __ catalyzes hydrolysis of proteins.
pepsin
224
Functions of the liver:
- produces bile (stored and concentrated in gall bladder)
- Filters blood
- Produces blood plasma proteins
- Produces cholesterol (LDL, HDL, etc.)
225
Glycogenolysis:
breakdown of glycogen stored in liver to form free glucose for release in blood (stimulated by glucagon)
226
Glycogenesis:
synthesis in the liver of glycogen for storage (stimulated by insulin)
227
Pancreas functions:
secretes digestive enzymes and hormones
228
Gallbladder function:
stores and concentrates bile, but does not produce bile
229
Function of bile:
emulsifies fats (physical digestion) in small intestine
230
Small intestine function:
majority of all digestion and absorption
231
Large intestine function:
water & vitamin absorption
232
Villi:
finger-like projection on wall of small intestine (increase surface area available for absorption)
233
Carbohydrate digestion:
begins in mouth, broken down to monomers before absorption, enter the blood stream and travel to liver
234
Protein digestion:
begins in stomach, broken down to small peptides and amino acids before absorption, enter bloodstream and travel to liver
235
Lipid digestion:
begins in small intestine, enter the lacteals
236
Immune system function:
protect body from infection and disease, destroy pathogens invading the body
237
Function of spleen:
filters blood, storage of high amount of blood to combat hemorrhagic shock, breaks down and recycles old RBCs
238
Duodenum:
upper portion of the small intestine
239
Cell-mediated immunity:
self-attack of diseased cells, involves T-lymphocytes
240
Humoral immunity:
antibodies and primary/secondary response, involve B-lymphocytes
241
Function of integumentary system:
protect against abrasion, physical barrier to pathogens, temperature regulation, vitamin D synthesis, prevention of water loss
242
Sarcomere:
repeating units of interconnected actin and myosin fibers
243
Sarcomere - A band:
length of the myosin filament
244
Sarcomere - I band:
distance between ends of myosin filaments
245
Sarcomere - H zone:
distance between ends of actin filaments
246
Sarcomere - Z line:
defines the edge of each individual sarcomere unit
247
Sarcomere - M line:
the very center of the myosin filament
248
The only neurotransmitters used at neuromuscular junctions is \_\_.
acetylcholine
249
Muscle contraction - role of ATP:
binds to myosin head after "power stroke" facilitating its release from actin filament
250
Muscle contraction - role of Ca+:
move tropomyosin out of the way, allow myosin to bind to actin
251
Features of skeletal muscles:
store large amounts of glycogen, require lots of oxygen (use myoglobin)
252
Joint types:
- fibrous (skull bones)
- cartilaginous (ribs to sternum)
- synovial (knee, elbow, etc.)
253
Cartilage:
a connective tissue composed mostly of collagen
254
Acrosome:
structure on the tip of the head of each sperm, contains digestive enzymes to dissolve otherwise impenetrable coating of ovum
255
Ovulation requires a __ in hormone levels; menstruation requires a \_\_.
surge, decline
256
3 germ layers:
ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
257
The carbonyl double bond is __ than an alkene.
shorter and stronger
258
Carbonyl alpha hydrogens are:
acidic (the greater the partial positive charge on the carbonyl carbon, the more acidic)
259
Formaldehyde:
HCOH
260
Acetaldehyde:
CH3COH
261
Benzaldehyde:
C6H5COH
262
Acetone:
CH3COCH3
263
Aldehydes and ketones can act as H-bond __ but not as H-bond \_\_.
recipients, donors
264
Aldehydes and ketones undergo \_\_.
nucleophilic addition
265
Carboxylic acids/esters/amides/anhydrides undergo \_\_.
nucleophilic substitution
266
Halogenation of aldehyde/ketone:
substitution of a Br, Cl or I for one of the alpha hydrogens on an aldehyde/ketone
267
Haloform reaction:
halogenation of a methyl ketone with sufficient halogen present to replace all three alpha hydrogens
268
Aldol condensation:
the condensation of one aldehyde or ketone with another aldehyde or ketone
(alpha hydrogen abstracted by a base, carbanion forms, attacks carbonyl carbon, oxygen protonated to form an alcohol)
269
alpha-beta unsaturated carbonyls:
aldehydes or ketones with a double bond between the alpha and beta carbons
270
Hofmann degradation:
primary amides (-NH2) react with Cl2 or Br2 to form primary amines + CO2
271
Wittig reaction:
carbonyl → alkene
272
Formic acid:
HCOOH
273
Acetic acid
CH3COOH
274
Benzoic acid
C6H5COOH
275
Carboxylic acid hydrogen bonding:
can do it twice to form dimers
276
Decarboxylation:
R-carboxylic acid → R + CO2
277
Esterification:
carboxylic acid + alcohol → ester + H2O
278
Formation of acid chlorides:
carboxylic acid + PCl3 → RCOCl + H2O
(very reactive because high withdrawing power of chlorine, and chloride ion is excellent leaving group)
279
Electron donating/withdrawing:
atoms with full or partial positive charges withdraw; atoms with full or partial negative charges donate
280
Halide leaving groups - best to worst:
I → Br→ Cl → F
281
What is peristalsis?
the involuntary constriction and relaxation of the muscles of the intestine or another canal, creating wavelike movements that push the contents of the canal forward
282
At low pH, amino acids exist in the __ form.
cationic
283
At high pH, amino acids exist in the __ form.
anionic
284
What are the three basic amino acids?
HAL - histidine, lysine, arginine
| (side chains contain an amine group)
285
What are the two acidic amino acids?
aspartic acid, glutamic acid
(side chains contain a carboxylic acid)
286
Glycine's unique feature:
R group is hydrogen, making it optically inactive
287
Proline's unique feature:
helix breaker
288
L-amino acids:
more common in nature, only type found in proteins
289
Non-polar amino acids:
VIP MALT Ph Glycine
(**_V_**aline, **_I_**soleucine, **_P_**roline, **_M_**ethionine, **_A_**lanine, **_L_**eucine, **_T_**ryptophan, **_Ph_**enyalanine, and **_G_**lycine)
290
Steroid hormones:
PET AC
(progesterone, estrogen, testosterone - gonads; aldesterone, cortisol - adrenal cortex)
291
Anterior pituitary hormones:
FLAT PiG
292
FSH function:
growth of follicle, production of sperm
293
LH function:
surge causes ovulation, stimulates secretion of estrogen & testosterone
294
ACTH function:
stimulates adrenal cortex to release stress hormones
295
TSH function:
stimulates release of T3 & T4 from thyroid
296
Prolactin function:
stimulates millk production in breasts
297
hGH function:
stimulates growth throughout the body
298
ADH function:
collecting duct of kidney becomes highly water-permeable, concentrating the urine
299
Oxytocin function:
stimulates contractions during labor, milk secretion during nursing
300
T3 & T4 functions:
increase basal metabolic rate, overall regulation of metabolism
301
Calcitonin function:
inhibits osteoclasts, decreases blood calcium
302
Parathyroid hormone function:
increases blood calcium - stimulates osteoclasts, uptake of Ca2+ in gut, reabsorption of Ca2+ in kidney
303
Epinephrine/norepinephrine functions:
response almost identical to "fight or flight"
304
Aldesterone function:
regulation of blood pressure - increased water and Na+ retention, K+ secretion
305
Cortisol function:
stress hormone - increase blood sugar through gluceogenesis, aid carb/fat/protein metabolism
306
Progesterone function:
growth and maintenance of uterus during pregnancy
307
Estrogen function:
stimulates female sex organs, causes LH surge in menstruation
308
Testosterone function:
development of secondary sex characteristics
309
hCG function:
maintenance of corpeus luteum during pregnancy
310
Aldehyde ending:
-al
311
Enols:
alkenes with a hydroxyl group
C=C-OH
312
H NMR: split peaks calcuation
number of non-equivalent hydrogen neighbors (attached to an adjacent carbon) plus one
