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Biological Molecules Flashcards

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1
Q

what are bioelements

A

25 naturally occurring elements found in living beings

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2
Q

how many bioelements are found in human beings

A

16

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3
Q

what are major bioelements

A

the 6 most common bioelements that make up 99% of human protoplasm

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4
Q

what are minor bioelements

A

the bioelements that compose less than 1% of protoplasm

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5
Q

what are trace elements

A

the elements that composed less than 0.01% of protoplasm

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6
Q

what are proportions of biomolecules in bacterial cells

A 
water - 70
protein - 15
carbs- 3
lipids - 2 
DNA - 1 
RNA - 6 
Other organic(enzymes hormones metabollites) - 2
inorganic ions (Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, SO4) - 1
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7
Q

what are the proportions of biomolecules in mammalian cells

A 
water - 70
protein - 18
carbs- 4
lipids - 3 
DNA - 0.25
RNA - 1.1 
Other organic(enzymes hormones metabollites) - 2
inorganic ions (Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, SO4) - 1
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8
Q

what are macromolecule and polymers

A

high molecular weight compound formed from many repeating unit
formed by condensation reactions

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9
Q

what are micromolecules or monomers

A

individual units of polymers

formed by hydrolysis reaction

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10
Q

what is condensation reaction

A

when two monomers join

hydroxyl and hydrogen is removed to make water and a bond between monomers

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11
Q

when two monomers join it forms what

A

dimer

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12
Q

when more than two monomers join what is formed

A

polymer

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13
Q

condensation reaction is also called

A

dehydration synthesis

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14
Q

which conditions are required for condensation reaction

A

proper enzymes

monomers in an activated energy-rich form

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15
Q

what is hydrolysis reaction

A

breakdown of polymer into monomer with the addition of water molecules
an 0H group is attached to one monomer while one H is attached to another monomer

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16
Q

what is the lowest and highest amount of water present in any organism

A

20% in seeds and bones
85-90% in brain cells
99% in jelly fish

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17
Q

describe the high polarity of water

A

oxygen is highly electronegative is is partially negative
hydrogen is partially positive
this makes it a polar compound

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18
Q

what is the significance of high polarity in water

A

it is a universal solvent for polar substances as well as on-polar substances having charged groups in their molecules

this allows for chemical reactions to occur in aqueous medium

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19
Q

describe hydrogen bonding in water

A

partially positive hydrogen atoms of one molecules are attracted to the partially negative oxygen atom of atom molecule forming hydrogen bonds between two molecules of water

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20
Q

what is the significance of hydrogen bonding in water

A

water is liquid at high temperatures

high cohesion and adhesion

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21
Q

what is cohesion in water molecules and its significance

A

cohesion is attraction of water molecules with each other

it allows water to flow freely

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22
Q

what is adhesion in water and its significance

A

attraction of water to polar surfaces

useful in flow of water

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23
Q

what is the specific heat capacity of water and its significance

A

the number of calories required to raise the temperature of 1gm of water by 1 C (1 calorie/4.18 joules)

water has high specific heat capacity due to hydrogen bonds

its temp does not change easily so it works as a temperature stabilizer and protects living material from sudden temperature changes

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24
Q

what is high heat of vaporization of water and its significance

A

amount of heat required to convert a unit mass of liquid to gas

water has high heat of vaporization (574 colories per gram )

large amount of heat is required to remove small amount of water so it provides efficient way to remove heat from body through sweat

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25
Q

describe hydrophobic exclusion of water and its significance

A

reduction of contact area between water and hydrophobic surface

it helps maintain integrity of lipid bilayer membrane

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26
Q

describe ionization of water and its significance

A

dissociation molecules into its ions is called ionization
water releases each number of hydroxy and hydrogen groups
equilibrium is maintained at 25C and helps maintain the pH of the medium

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27
Q

what is the significance of low density of ice

A

in freezing ponds or lakes it forms an insulating layer above the water and provides allows some organisms to live under the ice

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28
Q

what are carbohydrates

A

polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones

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29
Q

carbohydrates are classified into

A

monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides

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30
Q

what are the general characteristics of monosaccharides

A 
consist of single saccharides  unit 
they are simplest carbohydrates and cannot be hydrolyzed 
highly soluble in water 
they are the sweetest carbohydrates
range of carboon atoms is 3-7
general formula is Cn H 2n On
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31
Q

what are the general characteristics of disaccharides

A

they are composed of 2-10 saccharides units
they yield 2-10 monosaccharides on hydrolysis
less soluble in water
less sweet in taste

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32
Q

what are the general characteristics of polysaccharide

A

they are composed of more than 10 saccharides units
they have highly complex structure
they yield at least 11 monosaccharides on hydrolysis
they are generally insoluble in water
they are tasteless

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33
Q

monosaccharides are classified on the bases of what and their classification

A

on the bases of functional group

aldoses
ketoses

on the basis of carbon atoms 
C3 trioses 
C4 tetroses 
C5 pentoses 
C6 hexoses 
C7 heptoses
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34
Q

what are the aldose and ketoses of trioses and their function

A

glyceraldehyde

dihydroxy acetone

both are intermediates in photosynthesis and cellular respiration

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35
Q

what are the aldoses and ketoses of tetroses and their function

A

erythrose

erthrulose

both are intermediates in bacterial photosynthesis

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36
Q

what are the aldoses and ketoses of pentoses and their function

A

ribose / deoxyribose
components of DNA and RNA

ribulose
intermediate in photosynthesis

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37
Q

what are the aldoses and ketoses of hexoses

A

glucose/galactose
respiratory fuel/ component of milk sugar

fructose
intermediate in respiration

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38
Q

what are the aldoses and ketoses of heptoses and their function

A

glucoheptose

sedoheptulose

intermediates in photosynthesis

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39
Q

in ribose how is ring structure formed

A

when dissolved in water oxygen of aldehyde reacts with C4 and OH group of C4 IS SHIFTED TO C1

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40
Q

what is the difference betweeen alpha and beta glucose

A

OH group on C1 is alpha is downward

while in beta it is upward

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41
Q

what aare sterioisomers

A

molecules that have same molecular formula but iffeent arrangement in 3D space

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42
Q

what are enantiomers

A

type o of stereoisomers
molecules are non-superimposable images of
each other

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43
Q

what is an example of enantiomers

A

L and D-glucose

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44
Q

oligosaccharides are classified into

A

Disaccharides
trisaccharide’s
tetrasaccharides

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45
Q

what are the examples and general formula of disaccharides

A

C12 H22 011
sucrose
maltose
lactose

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46
Q

what is the structure function and properties of sucrose

A

also called cane sugar

used as a sweetener
it is a transport sugar in plants

it is soluble
unreactive
formed by condensation reaction of glucose (OH at C1) and fructose (H of OH at C2)
has alpha 1-2 glycosidic bond

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47
Q

what is the structure, function and properties of maltose

A

called malt sugar

intermediate disaccharide produced during breakdown of starch and glycogen

found in germinating seeds of plants

formed by condensation of alpha glucoses OH group at C1 and H of OH group at C4 forming alpha 1-4 glyosidic bond

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48
Q

what are the properties and how is lactose formed

A

commonly known as milk sugar

formed by condensation of beta galactose (OH of C1) and beta glucose (H of OH at C4) form beta 1-4 Glyosidic bond

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49
Q

polysaccharides are classified into

A

homopolysaccharides

heteropolysaccharides

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50
Q

what are homopolysaccharides and their examples

A 
polysaccharides formed by condensation of same monomers
starch 
cellulose
glycogen 
chitin
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51
Q

what are heteropolysaccharides and their examples

A

polysaccharides formed by condensation of different monomers
agar
pectin
peptidoglycan

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52
Q

main sources of starch are

A

cereal grain and potato tubers

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53
Q

starch is stored in plants in with prts

A

roots stem and seeds

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54
Q

describe the digestion of starch in humans

A

it is digested in oral cavity and small intestine by amylase
it yields maltose
which is digested by maltase into glucose

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55
Q

what is the identification test for starch

A

iodine test gives blue color

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56
Q

what are the types of starches

A

amylose and amylopectin

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57
Q

describe the structure of amylose

A

unbranched linear chain of glucoses attached by alpha 1-4 glyosidic bonds

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58
Q

amylose is soluble in what

A

hot water

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59
Q

describe the structure and solubility of amylopectin

A

branched chain of glucoses with branches formed by alpha 1-6 Glyosidic bonds

it is insoluble in water

60
Q

what is the function and where is glycogen present in humans

A

it is a storage carbohydrate

found in liver and muscles

61
Q

what is the test for glycogen

A

iodine test

gives red color

62
Q

describe the strucutre of glycogen

A

it is the same as amylopectin but more branched

63
Q

what are pure forms of cellulose

A

cotton and paper

64
Q

what is cellulose composed of

A

chains of beta glucose joined by beta 1-4 glyosidic bonds

65
Q

what is the result of cellulose in iodine test

A

no color

66
Q

proteins contain which elements other than C H O N

A 
P
S
Fe
I 
Mg
67
Q

what are proteins

A

polymers of amino acids

polypeptide chains

68
Q

how many amino acids are commonly found in proteins

A

20

69
Q

what is the structure of an amino acid

A 
an alpha carbon to which an 
Hydrogen is attached 
amino group NH2
carboxyl group COOH
variable R group
70
Q

which amino acids are the simplest and their R groups

A

glycine - H

alanine - CH3

71
Q

how are dipeptides and polypeptides formed

A

by translation

72
Q

what is translation

A

condensation of amino acids on ribosome under instructions of mRNA which takes these instructions from DNA
OH from carboxylic group is removed and H from amine group is removed
the bond formed is called peptide bond

73
Q

wat is primary structure of proteins

A

specific sequence and number of amino acids at the time of translation

74
Q

what are secondary structure and their types

A

alpha helical and beta pleated sheets established by hydrogen bonding between opposite charge bearing groups of amino acids

75
Q

what is tertiary structure

A

structure formed by ionic bonds, disulfide bonds to fomr globule shape

76
Q

what is quaternary structure

A

more than one globule is attached together by hydrophobic interaction

77
Q

what is the significance of amino acid sequence

A

sickle cell anemia
point mutation in DNA
in beta globin chain glutamic acid is replaced by valine

78
Q

describe the structure of hemoglobin

A

two alpha chains (141 each)

two beta chains (146 each )

79
Q

what are the problems in sickle cell anemia

A

sickle or crescent shaped RBC are sticky and stiff and tend to thrombose causing pain and organ damage

80
Q

what is the classification proteins on the basis of shape

A

fibrous and globular

81
Q

what are the characteristics of fibrous proteins and examples

A 
fibre/filament shaped
exist in secondary structure 
insoluble in aquous medium
elastic in nature 
cannot be crystallized 
collagen 
fibrinogen 
actin 
myosin 
keratin
82
Q

describe the characteristics of globular proteins and their examples

A 
spherical/globular shape
exist in tertiary or quaternary structure
soluble in aqueous medium 
inelastic in nature 
can be crystalized

enzymes
hormones
antibodies
channel proteins

83
Q

enlist structural proteins and their functions

A

collagen - establishes bone matrix and cartilage matrix

elastin- provides support for connective tissues of tendons/ligaments

keratin- strengthens protective covering of hair, nail, quills, feather , horns and beaks

histone- arranges DNA into chromosomes

84
Q

enlist functional proteins and their functions

A

enzymes - involved in metabolism; speed up metabolic reactions

hormones- regulation of physiological activities; glucose, calcium, blood pressure

antibodies - produced by WBC in response to antigen; immunity

hemoglobin- transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in RBC

fibrinogen- involved in blood clotting process found in blood plasma

ovalbumin- found in egg whites storage of amino acids

casein - milk based protein involved in storage of amino acids

85
Q

what are lipids

A

heterogenous group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvents such as acetone, alcohol, eter

86
Q

difference between carbs and lipids

A

lipids have less proportion of oxygen

87
Q

what is the molecular formula of tristearin

A

C57 H110 O6

88
Q

what is the most abundant lipid in living things

A

acylglcerol

89
Q

what is acylglycerol

A

ester of glycerol and fatty acids

90
Q

what is glycerol

A

it is a trihydroxy alcohol containing three carbon atoms each having an OH group

91
Q

what is fatty acid

A

type of organic acid containing one carboxylic acid group attached to a hydrocarbon group

number of carbons vary in even number from 2-30

92
Q

what are monosaccharides, disaccharides, trisaccharides

A

glycerol attached to one fatty acid
glycerol attached to two fatty acid
glycerol attached to three fatty acid

93
Q

how many fatty acids are found

A

30

94
Q

which fatty acids are the simplest

A 
acetic acid (2C)
butyric acid (4C)
95
Q

which fatty acids are the most common

A 
palmitic acid (16C)
stearic acid (18C)
96
Q

which properties of fatty acids increase with increasing number of carbon atoms

A

melting point
hydrophobic nature
solubulity on organic sol

97
Q

what are saturated fatty acids, their nature and source and example

A

they contain max number of hydrogen atoms

tend to solid at RTP
higher melting point

animal fats

palmitic acid

98
Q

what are unsaturated fatty acids, their nature, source and example

A

fatty acids that have one or more than one pair of carbon atoms joined by a double bond

they are liquid at RTP
they have low melting point

they are plant lipids(oils)

oleic acid

99
Q

how many carbons are there in palmitic acid long with its formula and melting point and typical source

A

16

CH3 (CH2)14 COOH

63

most fats and oils

100
Q

how many carbons are there in stearic acid long with its formula and melting point and typical source

A

18

CH3 (CH2)16 COOH

70

most oils and fats

101
Q

how many carbons are there in oleic acid long with its formula and melting point and typical source

A

18

CH3 (CH2)7 CH=CH (CH2) 7 COOH

4

olive oil

102
Q

how many carbons are there in linoleic acid long with its formula and melting point and typical source

A

18

CH3(CH2)4 CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)7COOH

-5

Vegetable oils

103
Q

waxes are ———— compounds

A

highly hydrophobic

104
Q

two types of waxes are

A

natural waxes

synthetic waxes

105
Q

what are the properties of waxes

A

chemically inert
resistant to atmospheric oxidation
protective function in animals and plants

106
Q

what are natural waxes and their types and locations

A

they are typically long chain fatty acids and long acohols

beeswax (in honey comb)
cutin (on leaf surface of plants)

107
Q

what are synthetic waxes and give an example and function

A

derived from petroleum and polyethylene

paraffin wax is used to make candles

108
Q

phospholipids are derived from

A

phosphatidic acid

109
Q

what is the structure of phospholipid

A

it is similar to a diacylglyceride attached to a phosphate group

110
Q

how are phospholipids formed

A

phosphatidic acid combines with one of

choline-nitrogenous base
ethanolamine- amino alcohol
inositol- amino acid
serine - amino acid

111
Q

most common phospholipid is

A

phosphatidylcholine or lecithin

112
Q

all terpenes are synthesized from

A

isoprene unit

113
Q

two, four and six isoprene unit form what and give their examples

A

monoterpene
menthol

diterpene
vitamin A / phytol (chlorophyll tail)

triterpene
ambrein

114
Q

what is natural rubber

A

polyterpene

115
Q

what are steroids

A

lipids of high molecular weight which can be crystalline

116
Q

describe the composition of steroid nucleus

A

consists of 17 carbons in four attcahed rings

three rings contain 6 carbon atoms while the fourth contains five

117
Q

how are steroids’ synthesized and what differentiates different steroids

A

by isoprene units

they side chains

118
Q

what is the significance of cholesterol

A

structural component of membrane

precursor of bile acids, testosterone, progesterone and estrogen

119
Q

what is the function and nature of bile salts

A

they emulsify fats and vitamin D

it is steroid

120
Q

prostaglandins are derived from and where are they present

A

arachidonic acid

every mammalian tissue

121
Q

what is the significance of prostaglandins

A

reduce blood pressure in some areas and raise it in other

help induce fever and inflammation

intensify sense of pain

help in platelet aggregation during blood clotting

122
Q

how does aspirin reduce fever and pain

A

inhibits prostaglandin synthesis

123
Q

nucleic acid was reported by who and when

A

Friedrich Miescher in 1869

124
Q

whe was the basic structure and chemical nature of nuclein determined

A

1920

125
Q

two types of nucleic acids are called

A

DNA

RNA

126
Q

nucleotides of DNA and RNA are called

A

deoxyribonucleotides and ribonucleotides

127
Q

each nucleotides is composed of

A

pentose sugar
phosphate
nitrogenous base

128
Q

which component of nucleic acid provides it is acidic property

A

phosphoric acid

129
Q

two major classes of nitrogenous bases are——— and what are their examples

A

purine (double ring)
adenine
guanine

pyrimidine (single ring)
thymine
cytosine
uracil

130
Q

enlist the nucleosides

A 
adenosine 
guanosine 
cytidine 
thymidine 
uridine
131
Q

nitrogenous base and phosphoric acid is linked with which carbon of pentose sugar

A

1

5

132
Q

describe polymerization of nucleotides

A

they are joined by condensation reaction
molecule released is pyrophosphate
cleavage of pyrophosphate by addition of water releases alot of energy which drives the process
phosphodiester bonds form between fifth and third carbon atom

133
Q

describe the end structure of polynucleotide chain

A

they have free phosphate at 5’end

they have free hydroxyl group at 3’ end

134
Q

describe the structure of ATP

A

adenine
ribose
three phosphate groups

135
Q

what are high energy bonds in ATP

A

bonds joining three phosphate groups

136
Q

describe the structure of NAD

A

two nucleotides
one containing nicotinamide sugar and phosphate
other containing adenine sugar and phosphate
joined together by their phosphate group

137
Q

NAD is what

A

coenzyme

138
Q

the ratio of purines to pyrimidines is

A

1:1

139
Q

what is chargaffs rule

A

ratio of purines to pyramidines is 1:1

140
Q

who claimed first that DNA is a double helix

A

mourice wilkins and rosalind franklin by diffraction analysis

141
Q

when and who found nitrogenous bases in DNA show specific ratios

A

1951

erwin chargaff

142
Q

when and who presented the first model of DNA

A

in 1953 james watson and francis crick

143
Q

what is the lengthof each turn and width of DNA

A

3.4nm and 2nm legth

144
Q

two strands of DNA are ————– to each other

A

antiparrallell

145
Q

which nucleotides pair with each other and why

A

adenosine and thymidine due to two hydrogen bonds

cytosine and guanosine due to three hydrogen bonds

Biology MDCAT (4 decks)

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