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MCAT Psychology > Biological Correlates Of Psychology > Flashcards

Biological Correlates Of Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the interaction between the environment and heredity?

A

Gene expression is influenced by environmental factors within the internal environment of the body and those found in the environment beyond the individual
Development of temperament: innate predisposition towards certain personality characteristics
- demonstrates the effect of heredity on behavior, but environmental factors come into play as infant’s behavior elicits certain reactions from caregivers
Heredity and environment both affect development of nervous system
- absence of certain visual features in environment can actually cause loss of neurons dedicated to those stimuli
Regulatory genes: affect various steps from DNA to protein to alter gene expression, which responds to environment
Epigenetics: physical alterations to genome (DNA methylation, histone modification) can be passed down to offspring
Behavioral variation: certain alleles in a population can be associated with behaviors, which may have different adaptive values, which are differentially selectively preserved

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2
Q

Sensation and Perception

A

Sensation: How we receive information from the outside world, through the senses, physical process
- Conversion of physical stimuli into electrical signals that are transferred through the nervous system by neurons
Perception: Use of sensory information and pre-existing knowledge to create a functional representation of the world, involves physiological & mental processing
- Allows for conscious awareness of the environment
Sensation and perception together enable detection and interpretation of environmental stimuli, providing information that can be used to formulate a response

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3
Q

Attention

A

Determines what stimuli continue to the level of perception after being sensed
- selects sensory information for perceptual processing
- sensory info that is not given attention may be unconsciously processed, but will not reach conscious awareness
- Gateway of attention is necessary for goal-directed behavior, since large amount of possibly useless information is always present
Selective attention and divided attention

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4
Q

Absolute threshold

A

Lowest intensity of a stimulus that can be sensed

  • Threshold of intensity is defined by the sensory organs, and differ across the senses
  • Intensity is defined based on the type of stimulus involved
  • absolute thresholds CAN be affected psychologically based on factors such as strong emotions or degree of subjective importance of correctly identifying the stimulus (biological processes SET threshold, psychological processes can MODIFY)
  • E.g. intensity of sound is either rate of energy transfer of sound wave or on logarithmic scale (decibels) which more accurately captures psychological experience of sound
  • Think about the related concept of absolute threshold in relation to the generation of an action potential
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5
Q

Difference threshold

A

AKA just noticeable difference (JND)
Describes smallest difference that is sufficient for change in a stimulus to be noticed
- Measures sensory system’s ability to detect small changes from a previously perceived stimulus
- The more sensitive the sensory system, the smaller the change required
- Weber’s law: change required to meet the difference threshold is certain fraction (Weber fraction) of originally presented stimulus
- Actual amount of change required to reach JND differs according to original stimulus

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6
Q

Sensitivity

A

Ability to detect a change from baseline, such as when the noise level in a room suddenly increases

  • High sensitivity correlated with small Weber fraction
  • Each individual has slightly different set of Weber fractions, general patterns found across human species that are evolutionarily advantageous
  • Pitch detection is adapted to threats that would be relevant to evolutionary ancestors, like identifying a predator (much smaller Weber fraction than taste)
  • Can be expressed as comparison between false alarm rate and hit rate (where hit rate is rate at which observer correctly recognizes presence of signal), if hit rate&raquo_space; false alarm rate, sensitivity high
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7
Q

Signal detection theory

A

Focuses on how an organism differentiates important or meaningful stimuli (signals) from those that are not of interest (noise) in an environment where distinction is ambiguous
- Ability to detect meaningful stimulus in midst of vast amounts of sensory information increases an organism’s chances of survival (sensitivity)

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8
Q

How does signal detection theory differ from the study of absolute thresholds?

A

Signal detection theory explicitly includes a decision-making component
Sensitivity is said to be mediated by bias, or individual’s tendency toward or against accepting evidence of a signal, where individual consciously decides whether evidence of signal is sufficiently compelling
- Mind consciously filters incoming information, while unconscious filtering takes place at level of NS
Individuals with the same sensitivity, but different biases can have different false alarm and hit rates
- Bias: can be influenced by psychological and environmental factors, where perceived rewards cause people to adjust

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9
Q

Selected Attention vs. divided attention

A

Selective attention: focus of attention of one particular stimulus or task at exclusion of other stimuli
- Like narrowing of a tunnel between sensation and perception such that only certain information is allowed to proceed
Divided attention: spits perceptual resources between multiple stimuli or behaviors
- analogous to dividing the tunnel used for selective attention into two smaller lanes
- causes each stimuli to receive less attention

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10
Q

What types of processing does perception use?

A

Bottom-up and top-down processing
Bottom-up: involves construction of perceptions from individual pieces of information provided by sensory processing (w/o bottom-up, would operate in vacuum w/o moment to moment input from one’s surroundings)
Top-down: brings influence of prior knowledge into play to make perception more efficient (organize crude information into useful model)
- pre-existing system for organizing incoming information
- Neither type of processing sufficient on its own

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11
Q

Gestalt principles

A

Principles describe top-down processing that organizes sensory information, such as that from the visual and auditory senses, into distinct forms (objects) according to distinct regions of the sensed surroundings
- One object is recognized as form or figure, and rest of stimulus is perceived as background or ground
Principles:
- principle of nearness: clusters of objects will each be perceived as a distinct group
- principle of similarity: objects with a shared feature, such as shape, will likewise be perceived as a single group
- principle of common region: objects sharing a common background are perceived as a group even if they would be separated by principles of nearness and / or similarity
- Principle of continuity: brain will perceive ambiguous stimulus according to simplest possible continuous form
- Principle of closure: perceive whole shapes even when they are not actually present in stimulus

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12
Q

What is the difference between sensation and perception?

A

Sensation occurs at level of sensory organs and receptors, the level at which environmental stimuli are first registered
Perception involves higher-level processing that occurs in the brain (although takes place out of conscious awareness)
Effect of attention can be described as top-down processing, where attentional resources are directed toward certain stimuli and others do not reach conscious awareness (eliminated them from scope of perception)

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13
Q

Perception of depth

A

Depth cannot be represented on two dimensional surface of the retina

  • brain must interpret information provided by the eyes in order to represent depth in mental model of surroundings
  • Compare image seen by each eye and because eyes are in different locations, see two versions of same stimulus from slightly different locations
  • Brain interprets difference between eyes’ images to estimate depth of object being viewed
  • As object’s distance from eye increases and images produced by eyes become closers and closer, retinal disparity becomes less useful, but brain can use other cues that do not require information from both eyes
  • If one object placed in front of another, object behind sensed as further away
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14
Q

Perception of motion

A

Cannot be represented by brain based only on pattern of information received by and represented by retina

  • Motion does not always produce a pattern of motion on the retina, and moving pattern on retina is not always due to object’s motion
  • If eyes move along with moving object, image projected does not move and if eyes move to view stationary scene, image on retina move while scene does not
  • Brain’s visual cortex integrates information gathered by retina and information about eye movements in order to make correct inferences about motion
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15
Q

Constancy

A

Perceptual constancy deals with problem of distinguishing between information received by retina and changes in surroundings

  • Top-down processing of perceptual systems preserves experience of constancy when changes in retinal patterns do not reflect actual changes in the world
  • size constancy: allows single object to be perceived as remaining constant in size when it moves closer to or further from the eyes
  • shape constancy: brain perceives object as maintaining its shape, even when it moves relative to the eyes which changes shape of light reflected onto retina
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16
Q

Visual processing

A

Interpretation of otherwise raw sensory data to produce visual perception
Two types of processing (both bottom-up):
- feature detection
- parallel processing
(Previously, top-down processing included Gestalt, depth, motion, constancy)

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17
Q

Parallel processing

A

Use of multiple pathways to convey information about the same stimulus

  • Starts at level of bipolar and ganglion cells in eye (high sensitivities to certain areas of visual info, receptive fields)
  • Info about different areas of visual field processed in parallel
  • Visual info split into two distinct pathways, one that detects and processes info about motion, and one that is instead concerned with form of stimuli (shape & color)
  • Both project to separate areas of lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) and visual cortex
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18
Q

Feature Detection

A

Visual information that reaches the visual cortex from parallel pathways then is processed to provide information concerning the most basic features of objects, which are integrated to produce a perception of the object as a whole

  • cells in visual cortex of brain that optimally respond to particular aspects of visual stimuli (lines of certain orientations)
  • type of serial processing, where increasingly complex aspects of stimulus are processed in sequence
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19
Q

Consciousness

A

Roughly equated with awareness, such as awareness of one-self, one’s surroundings, one’s thoughts, and one’s goals

  • Distinction between consciousness and unconsciousness critical to the filtering process that sorts incoming sensory info
  • Attention: the gatekeeper of consciousness
  • Alertness: ‘default’ state of consciousness when awake, brain is able to attend to tasks and carry out goal-directed processes (alertness & wakefulness related, but not the same)
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20
Q

Electroencephalogram

A

EEG
Method used to observe brain activity, recording at scalp of general patterns in electrical signals (brainwaves)
- Beta wave: EEG recordings during alertness show particular type of brainwave that differs from type of brainwaves observed during sleep stages and altered consciousness

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21
Q

Circadian rhythm

A

Maintains daily balance between wakefulness and sleep

  • Regulates body’s functions on a predictable schedule
  • lasts roughly 24 hours and can refer to many processes
  • involves opposing systems that promote each process
  • Drive for sleep builds up over the day, but opposed by biological clock of suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in hypothalamus (group of cells which regulate timing of many of body’s circadian rhythm like body temperature)
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22
Q

How does the SCN maintain the drive for wakefulness?

A

Inhibits the release of hormone melatonin by pineal gland
SCN firing decreases later in the day, which increases release of melatonin and drive for sleep comes to dominate, while wakefulness drive is inhibited
- Transitions between sleep and wakefulness occur at predictable intervals due to regulatory influences of SCN
- Affected by environment; light affects timing of 24 hour schedule by triggering SCN to increase inhibitory effect on melatonin release

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23
Q

Why is sleep necessary?

A

Sleep is not well understood, however the need for sleep can be understood by what happens during sleep deprivation

  • Sleep may be important for attention and memory
  • May be related to clearing of metabolic byproducts in the brain
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24
Q

Stages of sleep

A 
Stage 1: As sleep becomes deeper, wavelength of brainwaves increases (alpha waves, associated with a state of wakefulness, but more relaxed than fully alert beta wave stage), theta waves (irregular waveforms, slower frequencies, higher Volts)
Stage 2: associated with bursts of brain wave activity (full transition into sleep), showing theta waves, sleep spindles and K-complexes
Stage 3 (slow-wave sleep): delta waves (low frequency, high-volts) begin, much longer than alpha waves are seen, reflecting transition into deep sleep
Stage 4: (deepest sleep, slow-wave sleep), almost entirely delta waves
REM: separate sleep stag of high brain activity, brain relives massive amount of stimuli experienced during the day, consolidating important info into memory and discarding less important information (In NREM, brain activity much lower), also called paradoxical sleep bc one’s heart rate, breathing patterns, and EEG mimic wakefulness, but individual is asleep (also muscles paralyzed)
25
Q

Sleep cycles

A

Stages of sleep are repeated throughout the night as sleeper goes through series of sleep cycles
- Allow the distinct benefits of both light and deep sleep to be gained
- First few sleep cycles o night include deepest level of sleep; healing, growth, and recovery from fatigue of day, increased growth hormone release
- Later in night, time spent in lighter stages of sleep
Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and non-REM (NREM) sleep

26
Q

What are the differences between memory consolidation in slow-wave sleep and REM?

A

Slow-wave associated with declarative memory consolidation

REM associated with more procedural memory consolidation

27
Q

How does the sleep cycle change over life?

A

Increase from ~50 minutes in children to ~90 minutes in adults
Children spend more time in SWS than adults

28
Q

What are some theories of the purpose of dreams?

A

Activation-synthesis theory: dreams caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry
- mimic incoming sensory information and may also consist of pieces of stored memories, current and previous desires, met and unmet needs, and other experiences
- cortex stitches together resulting in a dream that is bizarre and somewhat familiar
Problem-solving dream theory: dreams are a way to solve problems while you are sleeping, untethered by rules of real world to allow interpretation of obstacles differently
Cognitive process dream theory: dreams are sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness
Neurocognitive models of dreaming: unify bioloigcal and psychological perspectives on dreaming by correlating subject, cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes

29
Q

What are some sleep-wake disorders?

A

Dyssomnia: disorder that makes it difficult to fall asleep
Parasomnias: abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep (nigh terrors, sleepwalking)
Insomnia: difficult falling asleep
- anxiety, depression, medications, or disruption of sleep cycles and circadian rhythms
Narcolepsy: lack of voluntary control over onset of sleep
- characterized by cataplexy, loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM during waking hours usually caused by emotional trigger
sleep apnea: inability to breathe during sleep
Hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations: hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening
Sleep terror disorder: sever nightmare-like imagery occurring in NREM sleep, involving sense of total panic
Body free to move during NREM sleep

30
Q

Hypnosis

A

State of relaxation, focused attention, and increased willingness to relinquish control over one’s own actions

  • Induced through cooperation with a hypnotist or later as self-hypnosis
  • No one can be hypnotized against their will
  • Useful as a treatment for anxiety and pain associated with medical conditions
31
Q

Meditation

A

Intentional, self-produced state of consciousness induced by relaxing and systematically shifting attention away from day-to-day concerns

  • accomplished by narrowing attention to a single focus, object in visual field or breathing, or by broadening attention to sensory information
  • Shifted away from anxiety-provoking thoughts and stimuli
  • Effective coping mechanism for stress
32
Q

Consciousness altering drugs

A

Can bring on more dramatic alterations in our state of consciousness

  • caffeine, other medicinal drugs, and recreational drugs
  • affect nervous system function and psychological characteristics such as perception, attention, and emotion
  • Effects produced by altering structures and pathways that already exist in the brain
  • Agonists: mimic chemically similar, naturally-occurring neurotransmitters, enhancing the effect of these neurotransmitters
  • Antagonists bind to neurotransmitter receptors without activating them, blocking binding of associated neurotransmitter and undermining normal effects
  • Other drugs affect amount of neurotransmitters in the synapse
33
Q

What are three types of consciousness altering drugs?

A

Stimulants, depressants, and hallucinogens
Stimulants: raise level of activity in central nervous system, Illicit drug: Methamphetamine, Prescription drug: Methylphenidate (Ritalin)
- increase amount of monoamine neurotransmitters in synapse (epinephrine, dopamine)
- body enters an aroused state of vigilance, with analogous psychological effects- increased feelings of alertness and energy
Depressants: cause a decrease of activity in CNS, associated with feelings of relaxation and decreased alertness, Illicit drug: Heroin, prescription drug: Xanax
Hallucinogens: drugs that cannot be neatly classified as stimulants or depressants
- defining feature is alteration in sensory and perceptual experience
- intensity and type can vary from subtle changes to full-blown hallucinations
- mimic body’s natural neurotransmitters, bind to and activate a particular type of serotonin receptor
- Illicit drugs: LSD, prescription drug: Ketamine

34
Q

Drug addiction

A

Addictive power of some drugs is achieved by hijacking a system in the brain that causes feelings of pleasure and reward

  • addictive potential is consequence of activity in the limbic system
  • Reward pathway is associated with both feelings of reward in day-to-day life and feelings of pleasure that lead to cravings and addiction
  • By activating this pathway, addictive drugs increase levels of dopamine and feelings of reward
  • Long-term drug use can alter the reward pathway to produce characteristic features of drug addiction, inhibits effects of dopamine and so tolerance is built up and need more
35
Q

Memory

A

Neural correlate of learning, representation and maintenance of information by the NS
- does not create an exact recording of surroundings or events
- representative model is created based on incoming stimuli
Two types of memory:
Declarative memory: info that is consciously known, such as memory of specific lifetime events and knowledge of facts
Non-declarative or procedural memory: unconscious ability to remember how to perform a particular task

36
Q

Declarative memory storage

A
  • Process of memory storage is carried out actively, not passively, as only selected information proceeds
  • At each stage of memory storage, memory undergoes encoding, where it is transformed into type of representation that is used by particular form of memory storage
    Three stages: sensory, working, and long-term
37
Q

Sensory memory

A

Temporary storage for incoming sensory stimuli
Encoding is simply process of transducing physical stimuli into electrical information that is thereby accessible to NS
- encoding largely unconscious, neurological process, carried out via sensory receptors and dendritic summation
- conscious processes like experience of fear can affect what stimuli are encoded and sensitivity of sense organs
- information remains in sensory memory for very limited time and moves to either short-term memory storage or loss of information altogether (attention decides)

38
Q

Short-term memory

A

Holds items in conscious awareness

  • can be manipulated rather than stored passively: in other words, info can be used, applied, or elaborated, such as when answering test questions
  • combination of memory storage and active use is called working memory
39
Q

Working memory

A

Combination of memory storage and active use, differs substantially from sensory memory in terms of encoding and storage

  • info usually encoded into working memory through auditory representation
  • If originally visual information, would appear briefly in sensory memory and if attended to would then move into short-term memory and represented as auditory information
  • Limited in number of items that can be stored simultaneously (5-9)
  • Keeping items active in working memory requires effort through rehearsal or repetition of phonetic representation, chunking or reorganizing large # items into smaller chunks
40
Q

Long-term memory

A

More durable storage which is maintained outside of conscious awareness and can be called back into working memory when needed

  • encoding is guided by meaning which occurs by linking new information to meaningful ideas that are already held in long-term memory
  • Information can enter long-term memory after short-term if kept in working memory and encoded long enough
  • Appears to be no limit on amount of information that long-term memory maintains
41
Q

Neural Plasticity

A

Ability of brain’s networks of neurons and their synapses to change

  • most apparent in early development, but continues to a lesser extent throughout life
  • include ability to reorganize in response to traumatic brain injury or stroke such that functions lost can be taken over by surrounding areas
  • without plasticity, adaptation to changing life circumstances and memory formation would be impossible
  • key to learning and memory formation is that patterns of neural activity occur in response to internal and external environment and the brain holds patterns as changes in receptors and synapses, maintaining physical record
  • Synapses are strengthened every time presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitter triggering action potential in post-synaptic neuron (strengthened by encoding and by retrieval)
42
Q

Memory Consolidation

A

Strengthening of the neural network that represents memory

- One of the functions of sleep

43
Q

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

A

Molecular process underlying formation of long-term memories through strengthening of synapses

  • Describes increase in likelihood that presynaptic input will trigger action potential in postsynaptic neuron
  • when repeated stimulation by presynaptic neuron while the postsynaptic neuron is also active leads to increase in strength of excitatory postsynaptic potential that is produced by similar stimulation, LTP has occurred
  • LTP can take place by the additive influence of multiple inputs
  • increases likelihood that corresponding memory will persist in brain
  • hippocampus and adjacent areas play important role in initial consolidation of declarative memory
  • After memory consolidation through LTP, communication between hippocampal system & prefrontal cortex establishes storage of long-term memories in various areas of cortex
44
Q

Retrieval

A

Information stored in long-term memory can return to working memory for purpose of problem-solving and guidance of behavior
- ability to activate particular memory as needed depends on presence of some form of organization of massive amount of information stored in long-term memory (structured by meaning)

45
Q

Semantic networks

A

Long-term memory makes use of these networks, which organize information in networks of meaningfully related memories

  • implications for ways memories are brought to consciousness
  • activation of memory of certain idea leads to activation of other memories that are also located in or linked to network of memory
  • Related memories are brought to mind through spreading activation: where one item triggers activation of related memories
46
Q

What are the various methods of assessing retrieval?

A

Recall: retrieval of memory “from scratch”
Recognition: correct identification of information that is presented (easier)
- Enhanced by presence of retrieval cues: environmental stimuli or pieces of information that are associated in some way with memory being sought
- retrieval cues are often environmental stimuli that was present at the time that memory sought was originally formed (context-dependent)
- retrieval cues can also be internal feelings such as anger (state-dependent)
- another type of retrieval cue is priming: occurs outside of conscious awareness and causes activation of semantic networks, makes individual more likely to recall memory that is similar though individual is not conscious of connection

47
Q

How does emotion influence memory?

A

Emotions can cue retrieval of memories formed with similar emotions
Memories that have high emotional significance or were formed in context of strong emotions are particularly available for retrieval

48
Q

What are processes that aid in retrieval of memories?

A

Clustering: organization of information by grouping similar terms together
Temporally: remembering something in a temporal order can be helpful
Mnemonics: Term often associated with a tool in which a word or phrase is constructed from first letter of each term
Visualization
Maximized with sufficient sleep
Caffeine, exercise, and time of day affect memory retrieval
Relearning material that was previously encoded, detection of long-term memories that have become inaccessible to conscious recognition or recall

49
Q

Decay

A

Fading of a memory

  • fate of information in working memory that does not get encoded into long-term memory
  • weakening of connections that make up neural network that holds a memory
  • strengthening of connections prevents decay of long-term memories
  • affects working memory as well as sensory memory
50
Q

Primacy effect and recency effect

A

In trying to recall information in an ordered list,, recall is strongest for items at beginning of the list (primacy) and items at the end of the list (recency)

  • memories in the middle are more vulnerable to decay (limitations of working memory)
  • memories in beginning are rehearsed more and memories at the end are not displaced in working memory by other items
51
Q

Interference

A

Common phenomenon that prevents successful memory retrieval

  • similar information prevents retrieval of a memory
  • forgetting of information in long-term memory often due to problems with retrieval rather than loss of memory altogether
  • newly learned material that prevents successful retrieval of related older memories is retroactive interference, but opposite process can occur (proactive interference)
  • the greater the similarity, the more often the interference (possibly sharing of retrieval cues)
  • older memories more likely to share retrieval cues with other memories, so more prone to interference
52
Q

Memory construction

A

Process where memories are updated with new information and experiences

  • occurs during retrieval bc we reactivate the neural network that represents that memory
  • activation provides an opportunity for changes to be made in that network and associated memory
53
Q

Source monitoring

A

Person attributes a memory to a particular source, correctly or not, such as recalling that a story was told by a particular person

  • when think memory is from person, may draw conclusions based on characteristics of source, and inferences then come to be a part of the memory
  • May also lead to construction of memories of events that never actually occurred
  • ability to attribute memory to correct source is one aspect of declarative memory that sometimes declines with aging
54
Q

What is the effect of age on memory

A

In fact a great deal of variation in amount and type of memory decline associated with aging

  • Severe deficits in memory are possible, but not inevitable
  • hippocampus and prefrontal cortex can be involved in areas affected by age (decrease in overall strength of connectivity)
  • Damage of prefrontal cortex affects capability for accurate source monitoring
55
Q

Cognitive changes in late adulthood

A
  • Possibility of memory impairment
  • Aging associated with cognitive decline, where ability gained in earlier development is lessened
  • Speed of thought and working memory typically decline with age
  • Cardiovascular disease can reduce blood flow to brain
  • Activities like completing a crossword puzzle or playing bridge can help maintain cognitive abilities in old age
56
Q

Alzheimer’s disease

A

Neurological disorder associated with aging, but not considered part of normal age-related cognitive change
- Has characteristic pattern of neurodegeneration
- Symptoms typically begin with loss of ability to form memories of recent events
- Ability mediated by hippocampus and surrounding areas, not surprising that structures are typically first to be affected
Two types of damage: amyloid plaques (extracellular protein deposits), neurofibrillary tangles (located within neurons)

57
Q

Korsakoff’s syndrome

A

Presents as deficit in ability to recall recent events while older memories are relatively unaffected

  • caused by nutritional deficiency rather than age-related neurodegeneration
  • Almost always associated with deficiency in vitamin B1, due to severe alcoholism
  • Not fully understood, but includes damage to frontal cortex and thalamus
58
Q

Parkinson’s disease

A

Neurodegenerative disease like Alzheimer’s but associated brain damage restricted to specific area rather than being widely distributed

  • Deterioration within substantia nigra in midbrain, leads to impairment in motor abilities
  • Symptoms: difficulty initiating movement, tremors, weakness of facial muscles
  • Deficiency in dopamine (affected neurons release dopamine) and substantia nigra cannot complete initiation of movement
59
Q

Stem cell based therapy for neurodegenerative disease

A
  • Possibly regenerate neurons in CNS, where stem cells are able to differentiate into variety of different cell types
  • Stem cells could provide powerful method to replace lost or damaged cells

MCAT Psychology (5 decks)

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