Biological Approach

Question 1

What are the three assumptions of the biological approach?

Answer 1

-Behaviour can be explained by localisation of brain function
-Behaviour can be explained by neurotransmitters
-Behaviour can be explained by evolutionary influences

Question 2

Explain the ‘behaviour can be explained by localisation of brain function’ assumption.

Answer 2

The cerebral cortex can be split into four sections:

-Frontal lobe (problem solving, decision making and motor skills)

-Parietal lobe (sensory processes, touch, pain, ability to feel temperature

-Occipital lobe (interprets visual stimuli and information)

-Temporal lobe (interpreting auditory information)

Question 3

What evidence is there for the ‘behaviour can be explained by localisation of brain function’ assumption?

Answer 3

Ishai (2007) found that observing beauty in members of the opposite sex raised the action of the OFC for both males and females, therefore providing evidence that the localisation of brain function does play a role in the formation of romantic relationships.

Question 4

Explain the ‘behaviour can be explained by neurotransmitters’ assumption.

Answer 4

The human nervous system is interconnected by neurons. Neurons are nerve cells that convey messages via electrical currents. These electrical currents are passed across the synapse (gap between the neurons) by neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that pass signals from the presynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic neuron. Two important neurotransmitters are dopamine and serotonin, which impact mood, sleep, memory, etc.

Question 5

What evidence is there for the ‘behaviour can be explained by neurotransmitters’ assumption?

Answer 5

Cacioppo (2012) determined the roots of male attraction by scanning male participants in a FMRI machine while they viewed pictures of women.The images ranged from unattractive to attractive. Results showed that the male brain released dopamine when viewing pictures of attractive women, and didn’t release any when viewing unattractive women.

Question 6

Explain the ‘behaviour can be explained by evolutionary influences’ assumption.

Answer 6

Human emotions, thoughts and responses are based on Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution. Darwin states that species survive through natural selection, where those who adapt to their environment tend to survive and produce offspring. The more characteristics a person has to survive in their environment, the more evolved they are. The genes that allow these people to be more successful at surviving in their environment are passed onto their offspring, meaning that in evolved families, these genes are likely to be passed on to the new generation. This is the ‘survival of the fittest’.

Question 7

What evidence is there for the ‘behaviour can be explained by evolutionary influences’ assumption?

Answer 7

Trivers claimed that the formation of romantic relationships is driven by evolution, specifically how each sex has different investment in their offspring’s survival. Females carry the offspring and thus have larger investment in their offspring. They look for a man with ambition, shelter and high earning capacity who can care for her and child. Males do not invest much in their offspring. They can have many children with many different women in a short space of time. They look for fertile, youthful women to have children with.

Question 8

Define the following:
-Natural selection
-Survival of the fittest

Answer 8

Natural selection - those who have the desired traits to survive in their environment will live longer than those who don’t and have more offspring. Gradually, the survival traits will be passed on and on until all descendants have them and the species has evolved.

Survival of the fittest - the continued existence of organisms which are best adapted to their environment, with the extinction of others that aren’t adapted to their environment.

Question 9

What is the therapy of the biological approach?

Answer 9

Psychosurgery

Question 10

What are the main components of psychosurgery?

Answer 10

-Prefrontal leucotomy
-Transorbital lobotomy
-Cingulotomy
-Stereotactics

Question 11

What is a prefrontal leucotomy?

Answer 11

Two holes are drilled into the skull and a sharp instrument called a ‘leucotome’ is pushed into the brain. Surgeon would move leucotome from side to side to sever the frontal lobes from the rest of the brain.

Question 12

What is a transorbital lobotomy?

Answer 12

An ice pick is inserted under the eyelid and into the eye socket, as the eye socket is the thinnest part of the skull and the easiest to break through. The ice pick then breaks through the skull and into the frontal lobe. The surgeon moves the ice pick from side to side to sever connections with the prefrontal lobe and other areas of the brain.

Question 13

What is a cingulotomy?

Answer 13

An incision is made in the nerves of the brain, while an MRI scanner is used to guide the surgical instruments. Surgeon can see exactly what they are doing in the brain, unlike previous procedures. Cingulotomies are for patients with OCD where the circuit between the thalamus and the occipital lobe is overactive. No part of the brain is removed, only nerves are manipulated.

Question 14

What is stereotactics?

Answer 14

Similar to cingulotomies since MRI scanners are used to view the specific area of the brain. Stereotactics use a computer driven guidance system so there is no need for the human hand to be used in the actual procedure. Computer uses coordinates to locate points in the brain. Tissue in the brain is then destroyed using gamma rays.

Question 15

What does psychosurgery treat?

Answer 15

Mental disorders such as OCD, schizophrenia and depression.

Question 16

What points can you use to evaluate psychosurgey?

Answer 16

+ve Supporting evidence
Cosgrove and Rauch (2001) found that cingulotomy was 56% successful for patients with OCD.
-Isn’t fully effective as not 100% success rate

+ve Advances in tech made more effective
Modern techniques use technology to target specific areas of the brain and will only manipulate the specific area, compared to the previous techniques which mainly used ‘guess work’

-ve Unethical (harm)
Effects of psychosurgery cannot be reversed. Early procedures also caused significant changes to patient’s personality and memory. Prefrontal leucotomy even left some patients in a ‘vegetative state’.

+ve More ethical today (valid informed consent)
Since 1983, informed consent needs to given under the Mental Health Act for a person to undergo psychosurgery. Not used if a more ethical treatment, such as drug therapy is more available.

Question 17

What is the classical research for the biological approach?

Answer 17

Raine et al (1997) Brain abnormalities in murderers study.

Question 18

What is the methodology in Raine’s study?

Answer 18

It was a quasi-experiment with a matched pairs design. The IV was whether the pp was NGRI or not. DV was the brain differences in pp.

Question 19

Who were the participants in Raine’s study?

Answer 19

All pps were obtained by opportunity sampling. There were 41 murderers (39 men, 2 women), who had a mean age of 34.3 years. All charged with murder or manslaughter and all pleaded NGRI. Pps had a range of mental disorders: six SZ, some head injuries, drug abuse, epilepsy, learning disabilities and personality disorders. They were all instructed to remain off their medication. Control group matched by age and sex. The six SZ had a SZ matched in the control. Rest of control group had no history of psychiatric illness.

Question 20

What were the procedures of Raine’s study?

Answer 20

PET scans were used to study active brain. Pps were required to do a continuous performance task (CPT) so researchers could see how certain areas of brain functioned. An injection of FDG tracers were used to highlight active areas of brain.

Question 21

What were the steps of the procedures in the actual experiment of Raine’s study?

Answer 21

1) Participants were given a chance to practise the CPT before receiving the FDG injection.
2) 30 seconds before the FDG injection pps started the CPT task so it wouldn’t interfere with initial readings.
3) Thirty-two minutes after the FDG injection, a PET scan was done of each pp. Ten horizontal slices (pictures) of the brain were recorded using a cortical peel.

Question 22

What were the findings of Raine’s study?

Answer 22

Found reduced activity in the brains of the NGRI in the prefrontal lobe, left angular gyrus, corpus callosum, and in left hemisphere the amygdala, thalamus and hippocampus. All of these areas are linked to violence.

Found increased activity in the brains of NGRI in the cerebellum, in the right hemisphere the amygdala, thalamus and hippocampus. These areas are not linked to violence.

No difference in the caudate, putamen, globas pallidus and brain. These areas are linked to mental illnesses.

Question 23

What is the contemporary debate of the biological approach?

Answer 23

The ethics of neuroscience.

Question 24

What are the main arguments in the ethics of neuroscience debate?

Answer 24

-Understanding consciousness
-Treat criminal behaviour
-Improve marketing techniques

Question 25

What evidence is there for/against understanding consciousness?

Answer 25

For:
Crick and Koch (1998) proposed that the claustrum (thin sheet of neurons in the centre of the brain) is the conscious. A 51 y/o with severe epilepsy had her claustrum simulated and she stopped reading and stared blankly ahead. Stimulation stopped and consciousness was regained.
-Could help make decisions about patients in a persistent vegetative state.

Against:
Just because a patient has currently lost consciousness, does that mean we have the moral right to withdraw life support? There is doubt about the soundness of evidence, the case study of one ‘abnormal brain’ cannot be generalised.

Question 26

What evidence is there for/against the treatment of criminal behaviour?

Answer 26

For:
Cherek (2002) investigated levels of impulsivity in males with criminal behaviour. Half of the pps received a placebo for 21 days, while other half received paroxetine. Paroxetine caused sig. decrease in impulsivity.
-Society would be a safer place if criminals could be ‘treated’.

Against:
Farah (2004) if courts used neuroscience interventions (drugs) to alter the behaviour of prisoners, we are denying them their individual freedom. A court may offer a convicted criminal the choice of a prison term or a course of medication. This may bring in the issue of coercion - criminal doesn’t have much choice but to take medication.
-Treatments can cause psychological and physical harm due to side effects

Question 27

What evidence is there for/against improving marketing techniques?

Answer 27

For:
Neuromarketing has found that when being interviewed by marketing researchers, we may not be totally honest due to social desirability bias. Can be avoided using eye tracking equipment (EEG) to see what consumers are actually attracted to when watching advertisements. Sands Research used EEG when making the highly successful ‘The Force’ advertisements. Upped website usage by half.
-Unethical as free will is removed

Against:
Wilson (2008) believes that commercial integration of neuromarketing research allows advertisers to deliver individual messages where our free will is manipulated. Ability to make informed purchases is removed.