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BIOL 223 Lecture Flashcards

1
Q

Define tissue

A

A group of cells that are working together to perform a function.

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2
Q

Epithelial Tissue

A

Sheets of cells

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3
Q

Connective Tissue

A

Bind things together, protection and support

Highly variable type of tissue.

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4
Q

Muscle Tissue

A

Specialized to contract.

Cardiac, Skeletal, Smooth Muscle

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5
Q

Nervous Tissue

A

Generates and transmits electrical impulses

Communication between different organs

Excitable tissues

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6
Q

Mucous Membrane

A

Lines the passageway that are open to the outside world

Digestive tract.

Epithelial membrane that produces mucous

Held in place by areolar connective tissue.

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7
Q

Serou Membrane

A

Lines cavities that are not open to the outside world

Abdominal cavity

Mesothelium lines the membrane and produces serous fluid for reducing friction

Connective tissue on outside not inside.

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8
Q

Cutaneous Membrane

A

Organ that covers the body, Skin.

Stratified Squamous epithelial membrane

Deep connective tissue

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9
Q

Highly Cellular (epithelial Tissue)

A

Epithelial tissue is highly cellular. it has lots of cells, not a lot of extracellular matrix

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10
Q

Avascular (epithelial Tissue)

A

Epithelial Tissue lacks a direct blood supply.

All epithelia receive nutrients from the underlying connective tissue.

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11
Q

Fuctions of Epithelial Tissue

A

Protection, protects your insides against the outside world

Control Permeability

Secretion

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12
Q

Tight Junctions Structure

A

Between two plasma membranes. Primarily found on the Apical border.

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13
Q

Tight Junctions Function

A

has transmembrane proteins that make a seal between adjacent epithelial cells.

Prevent the passage of water and solutes between cells. Selective barrier.

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14
Q

Gap Junctions Structure

A

Along the lateral surfaces of the cell. cells are held together by proteins called connexons.

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15
Q

Gap Junction Function

A

Allow for direct communication between adjacent cells, Allows small molecules and ions to pass through, Coordinate contractions in heart muscles

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16
Q

Anchoring Junctions Structure

A

Found around the lateral and basal surfaces.

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17
Q

Anchoring Junctions Functions

A

Stabilize epithelial tissue. anchor cells to one another or the basement membrane.

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18
Q

Anchoring Junction Types (three of them)

A

Desmosomes, Hemidesmosomes, Adherens

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19
Q

Actin

A

is a contractile protein which allows Adherens to shape and fold of epithelial tissue

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20
Q

Describe how to name different types of epithelial tissue

A

Based on the shape of the cells & Based on layers

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21
Q

Simple Squamous Epithelium

A

One layer of flat Cells

Kidney tubules, pericardial cavity.

Reduces friction, controls vessel permeability, performs absorption and secretion.

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22
Q

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

A

More than one layer of flat cells

Epidermis of the skin

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23
Q

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

A

One layer of cube shaped cells

Ducts, thyroid gland

Limited protection, secretion, absorption

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24
Q

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

A

More than one layer of cube shaped cells

Ducts of sweat and mammary glands

Protection from physical and chemical stresses

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25
Q

Simple Columnar Epithelium

A

One layer of tall skinny cells

Lining of stomach, uterine tubes

Protection Secretion Absorbtion

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26
Q

Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium

A

More than one layer of tall skinny cells

Nasal cavity, bronchi

protection, secretion, move mucus with cilia

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27
Q

Endocrine Glands

A

No ducts, secrets directly into blood.

Internal Secretions

Secretes Hormones

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28
Q

Exocrine Glands

A

Ducts

External Secretions

Sweat glands, Sebaceous gland

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29
Q

Describe the function of goblet cells

A

In the epithelia of intestines and respiratory tract

Secretes mucin, which mixes with water to form mucus

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30
Q

Merocrine Secretion

A

Released through secretory vesicles

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31
Q

Apocrine Secretion

A

Released by shedding of the apical layer of the cells

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32
Q

Holocrine Secretion

A

Release by cells bursting killing the gland cells and replacing them with stem cells.

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33
Q

Serous Glands secrete a Serous Secretion

A

Watery Secretion

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34
Q

Mucous Glands

A

Mucus Secretion

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35
Q

Connective Tissue Proper

A

Connects and protects

Loose and dense connective tissues

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36
Q

Supportive Connective Tissue

A

Bone and cartilage are supportive connective tissue

Structural Strength

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37
Q

Fluid Connective tissue

A

Blood is a fluid connective tissue

Transport

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38
Q

Fibroblasts (in Connective Tissue)

A

Most abundant cell type

Secretions make up the extracellular matrix

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39
Q

Fibrocytes (in Connective Tissue)

A

Second most abundant cell type

“Mature” fibroblasts

Maintain connective tissue fibers

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40
Q

Adipocytes (in Connective Tissue)

A

Fat cells

Stores energy

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41
Q

Mesenchymal Cells (in Connective Tissue)

A

Stem cells that respond to injury or infection, can differentiate into other types of cells

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42
Q

Macrophages (in Connective Tissue)

A

Large phagocytic cells of the immune system

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43
Q

Mast Cells (in Connective Tissue)

A

Stimulate inflammation

Histamine (vasodilator makes more blood come to injury) and heparin (anticoagulant stops bleeding)

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44
Q

Collagen Fibers (in Connective Tissue)

A

Most common fibers in connective tissue proper
Long straight and unbranched

Strong and flexible

Resists force in one direction

High tensile strength

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45
Q

Elastic Fibers (in Connective Tissue)

A

Contain protein Elastin

Branched and wavy

Return to original length after stretching

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46
Q

Reticular Fibers (in Connective Tissue)

A

Form a network of interwoven fiber to support the functional cells

Strong and flexible

Resists forces in many directions

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47
Q

White Fat

A

Is located in Adipose tissue. It is the most common fat found in the body. It stores fat and slows heat loss

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48
Q

Brown Fat

A

Is located in Adipose tissue. Found primarily in babies and young children. Some in adults but not alot. More vascularized. Breakdown of lipids to release energy and warm bodies.

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49
Q

Areolar Connective Tissue Structure

A

Elastic fibers produce an open framework - looks kind of like a spider web

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50
Q

Areolar Connective Tissue Function

A

Underlies most epithelia and provides a passageway for capillaries

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51
Q

Reticular Tissue Structure

A

Reticular fibers form a three dimensional stroma

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52
Q

Reticular Tissue Function

A

Provides support. Support functional cells of organs

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52
Q

Reticular Tissue Function

A

Provides support. Support functional cells of organs

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53
Q

Dense Regular Connective Tissue Structure

A

Tightly packed, parallel collagen fibers

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54
Q

Dense Regular Connective Tissue Function

A

High tensile strength and resistance to stretch in one direction

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55
Q

Dense Irregular Connective Tissue Structure

A

Collagen fiber orientation is random

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56
Q

Dense Irregular Connective Tissue Function

A

Greater strength in multiple direction. In the dermis, stretchy skin

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57
Q

List the Major Characteristics of Cartilage

A

Provides shock absorption and protection. Matrix is a firm gel - chondroitin sulfates. Avascular - Blood does not directly enter the area. Damage is harder to heal.

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58
Q

Hyaline Cartilage Structure

A

Most common type of cartilage. Found in joints.

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59
Q

Hyaline Cartilage Function

A

Large amount of proteoglycans makes them strong and flexible

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60
Q

Fibrocartilage Structure

A

Tough and durable. Thick bundles of collagen fibers

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61
Q

Fibrocartilage Function

A

Great for shock absorption. Knee joints intervertebral disc

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62
Q

Elastic Cartilage Structure

A

Elastic and collagen fibers

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63
Q

Elastic Cartilage Function

A

Support and flexibility. Outer ear

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64
Q

Major Characteristics of Bone

A

Hardest connective tissue

Collagen fibers embedded in a mineralized ground substance

Flexible collagen fibers prevent shattering

Osteocytes

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65
Q

Explain why blood is connective tissues

A

Contains a watery matrix called plasma

Contains cells and cell fragments

more ground substance than cells that’s why it is connective tissue.

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66
Q

Explain why lymph is connective tissues

A

forms as interstitial fluid that enters lymphatic vessels

66
Q

Skeletal Muscle

A

Consists of long, thin cells called myofibers
Cells do not divide
new fibers are produced by divisions of myosatellite cells
limited number and ability
Striated voluntary muscle

67
Q

Cardiac Muscle

A

Short, branched striated cells
intercalated discs are highly specialized
cells do not divide
no satellite cells
striated involuntary muscles

68
Q

Smooth Muscle

A

cells are short and spindle shaped
Cells can divide and pericytes can form new cells
nonstriated involuntary muscle

69
Q

Cell body, Neurosoma

A

Contains nucleus and most organelles

70
Q

Dendrites

A

Short branches extending from the cell body
received incoming signals and relay to the soma

71
Q

Axon (nerve Fiber)

A

Long thin extension of the cell body
carries outgoing electrical signals to their destination

72
Q

Identify the overall role of glial cells

A

Support Neurons

73
Q

Describe what inflammation is and its benefits

A

non-specific response intial response to tissue damage. It limits extent of injury, prevents damage from spreading, may even eliminate cause of injury.

initiation of tissue repair and regeneration

74
Q

What tissue types regenerate well? (three)

A

Epithelia, connective tissue, and smooth muscle

75
Q

What tissue types regenerate poorly if at all? (two)

A

Skeletal muscle and nervous tissues

76
Q

Cardiac Muscle Regeneration

A

Damaged cardiac muscles cells are replaced by fibrous tissue through fibrosis. Maintains structural integrity of the heart, but the section won’t be able to contract.

77
Q

Identify the major components of the integumentary system

A

Epidermis - > stratified squamous epithelium
Dermis -> areolar connective tissue and dense irregular tissue

78
Q

Thin Skin

A

four layers (strata) of keratinocytes
Covers most of the body

79
Q

Thick Skin

A

five layers (stata) of keratinocytes
Covers the palms of the hands and soles of the feet

80
Q

Stratum basale

A

Attached to basement membrane by hemidesmosomes. Closest to dermis

81
Q

Stratum Spinosum

A

eight to ten layers of keratinocytes bound by desmosomes
produced by division of cells in stratum bassale
Dendritic cells - macrophages associated with the immune system

82
Q

Stratum granulosum

A

three to five layers of keratinocytes
Produce keratin
After production of proteins, cells die. - to far from food source

83
Q

Stratum Lucidum - Only in thick skins

A

flat, dead cells

84
Q

Stratum corneum

A

External Layer
15 to 30 layers of dead ketatinized cells
Exposed cells are shed after two weeks

85
Q

Outer papillary layer

A

Areolar connective tissue
Dermal papilla feed nutrients to the epidermis
Meissner’s corpuscles - tactile corpuscles - light touch and pressure

86
Q

Deeper reticular layer

A

Dense irregular connective tissue
highly vascular
Collagen fibers provide structure and resist stretching
Pacinian corpuscles - deep touch, pressure, fibration

87
Q

hypoderms

A

lies deep to dermis
Stabilizes position of the skin
primarily adipose tissue <- circled
site of subcutaneous injections

88
Q

Melanin

A

Major Skin Pigment
Produced by melanocytes found in stratum basale of epidermis
Protects skin from UV Radiation, small amounts are beneficial

89
Q

Phenomelanin

A

Red-Yellow Pigment

90
Q

Eumelanin

A

Brown-Black Pigment

91
Q

Hemoglobin

A

a protein found in red blood cells for oxygen transport

92
Q

Discuss the information regarding tanning as presented

A

Exposure to any UV radiation increases melanin production
Immediate response is oxidation of melanin in keratinocytes
increased melanin synthesis last around 10 days after sun exposure

93
Q

Discuss the evolution of skin color

A

Variations in skin color result from multiple selection pressures
Primarily difference in exposure to UV light
Breaks down folic acid (harm)
Stimulates vitamin d synthesis (beneficial)
ancestral skin color is a result of a compromise between needs for folic acid and vitamin d

94
Q

Hair Shaft

A

Not anchored to follice

95
Q

Hair Root

A

Anchored to hair follice

96
Q

Hair Buln

A

Surronds hair hair papilla
Protect and insulate
Guard openings from particles and insects
serve as sensory receptors

97
Q

Anagen

A

rapid cell division at the hair root
typically last 3-5 years

98
Q

Catagen

A

Transition phase
Typically lasts 2-3 weeks

99
Q

Telogen

A

hair follicle is at rest
typically last 2-4 months
coincides with start of another anagen phase

100
Q

Describe nail structure and function

A

Protects tips of fingers and toes
made of dead cells packed with keratin

101
Q

Nail cuticle

A

Lunula (pale half moon shaped area), hyponychium

102
Q

Eccrine Sweat Glands

A

Widely distributed on body surface
Produce hypotonic sweat for thermoregulation
Duct empties at skin pore directly to surface

103
Q

Apocrine Sweat Glands

A

Found in armpits, around nipples, and in pubic region
Secrete products into hair follicles
Produce sticky cloudy secretions

104
Q

Sebaceous Glands

A

Holocrine Glands
Discharge sipid secretion (Sebum)

105
Q

Sebum

A

Lubricates and waterproofs skin
Lubricates and protects hair shaft
inhibits growth of bacteria
secretion stimulated by hormones

106
Q

Describe the overall functions of the integumentary system

A

Protection from the elements (wind water uv radiation etc.)
Sensory Function
temperature receptors
Thermoregulation
Vitamin D Synthesis

107
Q

Sensory Function (Integumentary System)

A

Hair root plexus, can feel hair movement which way air is blowing
pain receptors
temperature receptors

108
Q

Thermoregulation (integumentary system)

A

Sweat
evaporative cooling

109
Q

Vitamin D Synthesis (integumentary System)

A

Begins in skin with UV radiation synthesizing cholecalciferol from cholesterol
Cholecalciferol is converted to calcidiol in the liver
Calcidiol is converted into active Vitamin D in the kidneys
Essential for calcium and phosphorus absorption
Prevents Rickets

110
Q

basal cell carcinoma

A

most common form of skin cancer also least deadly
Arises from stem cells in the stratum basale

111
Q

squamous cell carcinoma

A

less common than carcinoma more common than melanoma
arises from keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum

112
Q

melanoma

A

least common form of skin cancer most deadly
arises from melanocytes

113
Q

Know the importance and components of the ABCDE rule.

A

A - Asymmetry: Melanoma is not symmetrical
B - Border: irregular border
C - Color: darker than rest of the person skin but tumor can be multiple colors
D - Diameter: bigger the tumor worse it is
E - Evolution: change over time very quickly

114
Q

First Degree Burn

A

Sunburn, Epidermis only. Redding of the skin

115
Q

Second Degree Burn

A

All the way through the epidermis and small bit of the dermis. Blistering

116
Q

Third Degree Burn

A

epidermis and full dermis
typically won’t heal on its own will need a skin graft sometimes

117
Q

Fourth Degree Burn

A

Epidermis, Dermis, Underlying tissue
will not heal and will need a skin graft.

118
Q

Describe the primary functions of the skeletal system

A

Support the body
Protect internal organs
Store and release minerals and fat

119
Q

Irregular Bones

A

Protect internal organs
Not shaped like any of the other bone classifications

120
Q

Short Bones

A

Stability, support and limited motion. carpals, wrist.

121
Q

Flat Bones

A

Muscles attach there and protect internal organs. Cranial bones, parietal and frontal bone.

122
Q

Long Bones

A

Levers for skeletal muscles to work on. Femur, humerus.

123
Q

Sesamoid Bones

A

protect tendons from compressive forces. Everyone has a patella.

124
Q

Diaphysis

A

Shaft of a Long Bone
Medullary Cavity
Compact Bone Walls

125
Q

Epiphysis

A

Wider sections at the end of long bones
Filled with spongy bone

126
Q

Metaphysis

A

Epiphyseal plate or epophyseal line. Neck part of a long bone between the diaphysis and the epiphysis

127
Q

Periosteum

A

Membrane around the bone

128
Q

Endosteum

A

incomplete membrane lining of the bone

129
Q

Flat Bone

A

Looks like a sandwhich
Compact Bone - The bread of the sandwich the outer walls
Diploe - the filling of the flat bone sandwich

130
Q

Articulations

A

where two bones meet, a joint.
Just because two bones meet does not mean there is movement at that joint.

131
Q

Projections

A

Projects above the surface of bone. Trochanters

132
Q

Holes

A

opening or groove in the bone

133
Q

osteogenic cells

A

stem cells that differentiate into osteoblasts, found in periosteum and bone marrow

134
Q

Osteoblasts

A

Build Bone. Synthesize and secrete collagen

135
Q

Collagen

A

is the principal protein of the skin, tendons, cartilage, bone, and connective tissue.

136
Q

What Cells are involved in the maintenance of bone and where are they located?

A

osteocytes are osteoblasts in lacunae and are involved in maintenance of bones

137
Q

Osteoclasts

A

Crush Bones. Resorption of bones and puts it somewhere else

138
Q

Describe the composition of bone matrix

A

Calcium Phosphate makes up almost two-thirds of bone mass
Collagen makes up the other one-third of bone mass.

139
Q

Describe the structure of compact bone

A

Dense and strong bone
Deep to periosteum
in the diaphysis of long bones
Osteon is the structural unit

140
Q

Describe the structure of spongy bone

A

In epiphyses and diploe
trabeculae
Absorbs stress from multiple directions
lighter bone
Contains red bone marrow

141
Q

trabeculae

A

struts of bone that run in multiple directions
Absorbs stress from multiple directions

142
Q

Explain the blood and nerve supply to the bone: Nutrient Foramen

A

Small openings in diaphysis for arteries and veins

143
Q

Explain the blood and nerve supply to the bone: Spongy Bone

A

Blood vessels of periosteum penetrate and blood in marrow cavities

144
Q

Describe the structure and function of the periosteum

A

Periosteum:
Not found within joint cavities
outer fibrous layer and inner cellular layer
fibers are interwoven with those of tendons
perforating fibers

145
Q

Perforating Fibers

A

Fibers that become incorporated into bone tissue

146
Q

Endoesteum

A

Incomplete cellular layer that lines medullarly cavity
Active during bone growth, repair, and remodeling
Covers trabeculae of spongy bone
Lines central canals of compact Bone
Consists of flattened layer of osteogenic cells

147
Q

List/identify the different steps of intramembranous ossification

A

Mesenchymal cells differentiate into cells to produce capillaries, osteogenic cells, and osteoblasts
Early osteoblasts at ossification center and secrete osteoid
Osteoid deposition around capillaries forms trabeculae
Osteoblasts near surface become periosteum

148
Q

give examples of bones formed by intramembranous ossification

A

Compact and spongy bone are developed from sheets of mesenchyme
flat bones - Clavicles

149
Q

List/identify the different steps of endochondral ossification

A

How most bones form
Replace hyaline cartilage model with bone
takes longer than intramembranous ossification

mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes
cartilage model and perichondrium form
capillaries penetrate cartilage, the perichondrium is replaced with periosteum, and a primary ossification center forms
Cartilage and chondrocytes continue to grow at ends of bone
Secondary centers of ossification form
Cartilage remains at epiphyseal plate and at joint surfaces

150
Q

Discuss growth in length of bones including the different zone of the epiphyseal plate

A

Collangen forms on the epiphyseal side
cartilage is ossified on the diaphyseal side

151
Q

reserve zones

A

closest to the epiphysis and secure bone to cartilage

152
Q

Proliferative zone

A

Stacks of chondrocytes that divide to rplace those that die at diaphyseal end

153
Q

Zone of Maturation and hypertrophy

A

chondrocytes enlarge and secrete matrix which begins to calcify

154
Q

Zone of calcified matrix

A

chondrocytes are dead, capillaries and osteoblasts begin to penetrate, osteoblasts secrete osteoid on remaining calcified cartilage.

155
Q

Define appositional growth

A

Growth in width
thickens and strengthens long bones
Layers of circumferential lamellae are added at outer surface
Osteoclasts remove bone matrix at inner surface of bone

156
Q

Define/describe bone remodeling

A

Matrix is resorbed on one surface and deposited on another
Balance between osteoclasts and osteoblasts
Injury exercise and other stresses can lead to bone remodeling

157
Q

Discuss the effects of exercise on bone

A

exercise puts new stress or forces on your bones
excerise stimulates osteoblasts to build more bone and they become thicker and stronger.

158
Q

List the different nutrients and hormones needed for bone formation and maintenance

A

Calcium and phosphorus are required
Vitamin K synergistic role with Vitamin D
Calcium cannot be absorbed without vitamin D

159
Q

hypocalcemia

A

Low Blood calcium

Decreased coagulation
Decreased muscle contraction
Nerves malfunction and may be hyperactive
Bones become brittle

160
Q

Hypercalcemia

A

High Blood Calcium

Never are underactive
lethargy
slow reflexes
coma

161
Q

parathyroid hormone

A

big one for calcium homeostasis

Produced by parathyroid glands in neck

Increases blood calcium ion levels by

Stimulating osteoclast activity (indirectly)

Increasing intestinal absorption of calcium by enhancing calcitriol
secretion by kidneys

Decreasing calcium excretion by kidneys
activates calcitriol

162
Q

calcitriol

A

activates vitamin D to increase calcium production

163
Q

calcitonin

A

(most important in growing children and pregnant women)

Secreted by C cells in thyroid gland

Decreases blood calcium ion levels by inhibiting osteoclast activity, decrease bone resorption

Increasing calcium excretion and reducing calcitriol secretion by kidneys.

Decreasing intestinal absorption of calcium

BIOL 223 Lab (2 decks)

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