biochemical systems and living cells Flashcards
level of organization of the living organism
atom, molecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism, population, community, ecosystem, biome, biosphere
why do we need to study organelles of the living cell in relation to biochemical systems?
1) provide information regarding the structure of the cell and the function and composition of each part
2) provide understanding of the relation of different biochemical systems (NA, P, L, C, E) to the organelles of the living cell
what is the CHIEF GOAL of biochemistry?
to understand the structure and behavior of biomolecules
carbon-containing compounds that make up the various parts of the living cell
biomolecules
they carry out chemical reactions that enable it to GROW, MAINTAIN AND REPRODUCE ITSELF, and USE AND STORE ENERGY
biomolecules
what are the classes of biomolecules?
lipids and glycerol, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, proteins
the _____ of each biomolecule determines in what chemical reactions it is able to participate, and hence what _______ in the cell’s life processes
structure; role it plays
the most basic similarity is that all living things are composed of one or more cells
the cell theory
our knowledge of cells is built on work done with _____
microscopes
in 1665 first described cells from his observations of CORK SLICES
robert hooke
first used the word “cell”
robert hooke
in 1673 discovered microscopic animals in water
antoine van leeuwenhoek
in 1830’s were first to say that all organisms are made of one or more cells
matthias schleiden and theodor schwann
in 1858 stated that all cells come from the division of pre-existing cells
rudolf virchow
omnis cellula e cellula
every cell stems from another cell
the building blocks of life
cells
three principles of cell theory
1) all living organisms are made up of one or more cells
2) the cell is the basic unit of life
3) all cells come from the division of pre-existing cells
cells come in many shapes and sizes, although most are _______-
microscopic
most cells are small, what size?
0.001 cm = 1/100 mm = 10 µm
the smallest cells of the microorganism ________ are _______ in size
mycoplasma; 0.3 µm
biggest/largest cell
ostrich egg
______ red blood cells would fill the letter “O” on a page of type
40k rbc
you produce about ______ new red blood cells every second
2.5 million
each square cm of your skin contains about _______
150k skin cells
human beings are composed of about __________
50-100 trillion cells
they carry on all the processes associated with life, such as _______ and _________ with the environment
cells; reproducing and interacting
what are the main parts of the cell?
nucleus, cell/plasma membrane, cytoplasm
specialized structure within the cell which contains DNA and controls cell functioning and reproduction
nucleus
small bodies with specific structures and functions within the cell
organelles
the liquid substance between the nucleus and the cell membrane, in which the organelles are located
cytoplasm
the thin layer which separates the cell contents from it’s environment
cell/plasma membrane
what are the additional plant cell parts?
vacuole, cell wall, plastids
membrane enclosed, fluid-filled spaces
vacuole
surrounding the cell membrane
cell wall
membrane-bound structures that usually contain pigments and give plant cells their colors. (i.e. chloroplast)
plastids
its cells lack a nucleus and other organelles. they are unicellular
prokaryotes
contains the cell’s genetic information
nucleus
which produce energy for the cell
mitochondria
storage form of glucose
glycogen granules
a dangerous form of the normally benign E. coli bacteria which live in the intestine.
enterohaemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC)
usually transmitted by food poisoning, they can cause life-threatening diarrhoea, intestinal bleeding, kidney failure and disturbances to blood clotting.
E. coli 0111 bacteria
T OR F: there are no effective cures for EHEC, but there are treatments for dealing with the symptoms of infection
true
another strain of EHEC bacteria
E. coli 01571:H7
cells are surrounded by a thin membrane of ____ and _____, about _____ angstroms thick
lipid and protein; 100 angstroms
functions in transport of materials in and out of cell, recognition, communication, and homeostasis
cell/plasma membrane
it is a remarkable structure that has properties of a solid and a liquid
cell/plasma membrane
it forms a “fluid sea” in which proteins and other molecules like other lipids or carbohydrates are suspended (like icebergs) or anchored at various points on its surface
fluid mosaic model (Singer and Nicolson)
the _______ part is composed of side by side phospholipids arranged in a bilayer
“sea” or “fluid”; lipid bilayer
the solid part (the “____”) is the variety of proteins and other molecules embedded in the bilayer
mosaic
each phospholipid has a
hydrophobic tail and hydrophilic head
the membrane has a consistency of what oil
light machine oil
the membrane let some substances in but not others of the same size
selectively permeable
the plasma membrane that surrounds eukaryotic cells is a dynamic structure composed of ___ layers of ______ molecules interspersed with _____ and _______
two layers of phospholipid molecules; cholesterol and proteins
composed of a hydrophilic, or water-loving, head and two tails, which are hydrophobic, or water-hating
phospholipid
the two phospholipid layers face each other in the membrane, with the ____ directed outward and the _____ pointing inward
heads; tails
anchor the membrane to the cytoplasm, (the watery fluid inside the cell) and also to the water surrounding the cell
water-attracting heads
block large water-soluble molecules from passing through the membrane, while permitting fat-soluble molecules, including medications such as tranquilizers and sleeping pills, to freely cross the membrane
water-hating tails
_______ embedded in the plasma membrane carry out a variety of functions, including transport of large water soluble molecules such as _____ and certain _____
proteins; sugars; amino acids
serve in part to identify the cell as belonging to a unique organism, enabling the immune system to detect foreign cells, such as invading bacteria, which carry different glycoproteins
glycoproteins (proteins bonded to carbo)
act as stabilizers that limit the movement of the two slippery phospholipids layers, which slide back and forth in the membrane
cholesterol molecules
enable small molecules such as oxygen (upper right) to diffuse readily into and out of the cell
tiny gaps in the membrane (interstices)
Since cells constantly use up oxygen, its concentration decreases within the cell. The higher concentration of oxygen outside the cell causes a ___________
net flow of oxygen into the cell
The steady stream of oxygen into the cell enables it to carry out ________ continually, a process that provides the cell with the energy needed to carry out its functions
aerobic respiration
it is made up of a large number of cellulose fibers cemented together (like the cellulose fibers in paper)
cell wall
cell wall is made up of what?
cellulose fibers (long molecule of carbohydrates)
cell wall is said to be as
semi-permeable
_____ molecules have little difficulty penetrating the cell wall, while ____ molecules may not be able to pass through
small; large
relatively rigid, lends shape to plant cell, does not participate in cell activity
cell wall
fungi cell wall is made of
chitin (amino sugar glucosamine)
bacteria cell is made of
murein (polysaccharide chain linked by amino acids)
they are the food makers for the world
chloroplasts and plastids
found in plant cells only
plastids
membrane-bound structures that usually contain pigments and give plant cells their colors
plastids
most prominent plastid is the
chloroplasts
some plastids are storage bodies for?
starch, protein, oils
cellular structures in plant cells which generally hold pigments
chloroplast
they are colored plastids
chromoplast
chlorophyll bearing plastids (green color)
chloroplasts
yellow or orange pigments, cream, red and brown
carotenoids/xanthrophylls
are white or colorless plastids
leucoplasts
contains starch, oils, and protein granules
leucoplasts
inside of the chloroplast are membranous stacks of
grana
this is where the chlorophyll is located
grana
each pancake or granum is called a
thylakoid
found inside the thylakoid
lumen
are the double-membrane bound organelles in which PHOTOSYNTHESIS (the conversion of light energy to carbohydrates) occur)
chloroplasts
photosynthesis equation
CO2 + H2O + light energy -> C6H12O6 + O2
is the chemical that absorbs the energy of the sun to provide the energy required for reducing CO2 to Glucose
chlorophyll
they are storage depots
vacuoles and vesicle
it is a small vacuole
vesicle
it is a large vesicle
vacuole
used for transport and storage of materials
vesicle
vacuoles and vesicles are formed by:
1) pinching off from the Golgi apparatus
2) endocytosis of the CM
3) extension of the ER membrane
plant cells usually have one large
central vacuole
functions of central vacuole
water, food, waste storages, cell support
it is thought to be an extension of the ER membrane
central vacuole
what do you call the membrane of central vacuole
tonoplast
the water with dissolved substances (salts, sugars, organic acids) of central vacuole
cell sap (fluid)
processing centers (vacuole)
food vacuole
contains finished products such as fats (vacuole)
storage vacuole
elimination of wastes (vacuole)
excretory vacuoles
types of central vacuoles
food, storage, excretory vacuoles
organelles that sequester diverse oxidative reactions and play important roles in metabolism, reactive oxygen species detoxification, and signaling
peroxisomes
remove hydrogen atoms from small molecules and join the hydrogen atoms to oxygen to form ______, and then break it down into water and oxygen
peroxisomal enzymes; hydrogen peroxide
the cell’s cpu
nucleus
it is the control center or “brain” of cell
nucleus
It contains the DNA and is site of manufacture of RNA
nucleus
a large, centrally located organelle surrounded by nuclear envelope
nucleus
is a double membrane (2 phospholipid bilayers thick) that has pores in it for molecules to enter and exit
nuclear envelope
is very porous and is a continuation of the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum
nuclear envelope
allow selected molecules into and out of the nucleus
nuclear pores
also believed that they are the routes by which genetic messages (RNA) pass into the cytoplasm
nuclear pores
iti is contained by a number of chromosomes
DNA
it consists of long strands of DNA
chromosomes
the DNA is tightly wound into coils with proteins called
histones
combination of DNA and histone proteins
chromatin
function in packaging of DNA during nuclear division and control of gene expression
chromosomes
level of organization of the chromosome
DNA - beads on a string with histones (nucleosomes) - chromatin fiber - chromosome
determines the metabolism, growth, differentiation, structure, and reproduction of cell
nucleus
nucleus contains one or more DARK-STAINING discrete structures
nucleoli
which are sites of RIBOSOMAL RIBONUCLEIC ACID (rRNA) SYNTHESIS
nucleoli
is a system of MEMBRANOUS TUBULAR CANALS that begins just outside the nucleus and branches throughout the cytoplasm
endoplasmic reticulum
if ribosomes are attached to the ER
rough ER
the function of rough ER is what
protein synthesis
if no ribosomes are attached to the ER
smooth ER
function of smooth ER is what
lipid synthesis
required for the growth of the cell membrane and for the membranes of the organelles within the cell
lipids
often used to make hormones
lipids
detoxify drugs and chemicals in the cell (takes place in peroxisome vesicles which are often attached to smooth ER)
lipids
provide an increase in surface area where chemical reactions can occur
ER membranes
the channels of the reticulum provide both _____ for products synthesized by the cell and _____ through which material can travel through other parts of the cell
storage space; transportation routes
the cell’s membrane factory
ER
the main components of membranes throughout the cell, are synthesized in the smooth ER
phospholipids and cholesterol
most of the proteins leaving the endoplasmic reticulum are still what
not mature
proteins must undergo further processing in another organelle, the ______, before they are ready to perform their functions within or outside the cell
Golgi apparatus
consist of rRNA and proteins
ribosomes
is produced in the nucleolus and joined with proteins, then migrate through the nuclear pore to the cytoplasm for final assembly
rRNA
attach themselves to the endoplasmic reticulum
ribosomes
functions as the site for PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
ribosomes
each ribosome is made of two non-identical subunits
large and small subunits
a stack of flattened, hollow cavities enclosed by membranes, which is often continuous with the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum
golgi apparatus
golgi apparatus is also called as
golgi body/complex
golgi apparatus is located near to the what?
nucleus and ER
named after an italian anatomist
camillo golgi
the stack of GA is made of ___ that looks like a flattened stack of hollow tubes
half dozen or more saccuoles
each sac in the GA contains ____ that modify _____ as they pass through
enzymes; proteins
functions of GA
modification, assembly, packaging, storage and secretion of substances
t or f: the Golgi Apparatus receives newly manufactured PROTEIN (from the ER) on its INNER surface
true
within the GA, the proteins are SORTED OUT, LABELED, and PACKAGED into _____ that “_____” the outer surface of the saccuoles
vesicles; pinch off
these vesicles can then be transported to where they are needed within the cell, or can move to the cell membrane for export to the outside of the cell by ____
exocytosis
this is the cellular stomach
lysosome
special vesicles which are formed by the GA
lysosomes
they contain powerful hydrolytic enzymes
lysosome
functios of lysosomes:
1) cellular digestion
2) autodigestion
3) breakdown of a whole cell
lysosomes are sometimes called as what?
suicide sacs
lysosomes are known to contain over _______ that can digest almost anything in the cell, including _____
40 different enzymes; proteins, RNA, DNA, and carbohydrates
solid intake of endocytosis
phagocytosis
fluid intake of endocytosis
pinocytosis
lysosomes also appear to perform other digestive processes, such as those connected with ______
phagocytosis and pinocytosis
they help destroy invading bacteria
lysosomes
cell’s powerhouse
mitochondria
largest organelles in ANIMAL CELL, after the nucleus
mitochondria
are sausage-shaped or filamentous structures surrounded by a double-layered membrane
mitochondria
mitochondria vary in diameter from 0.5 to 1 micrometer and in length up to 7 micrometers. (about the size of _____)
bacteria
mitochondrion has two membranes
inner and outer membranes
the inner is convoluted into shelf-like folds
cristae
the enzymes responsible for cellular respiration are arranged, in assembly-line fashion, on the _____
cristae
this is where energy is produced (mitochondria)
cristae
mitochondrion mainly functions in what process?
aerobic energy metabolism (cellular respiration)
it converts glucose and fatty acids to ATP, the cell’s primary energy molecule, as well as lesser amounts of other energy rich molecules
mitochondria
overall formula for cellular respiration
O2 + C6H12O6 -> CO2 + H2O + ATP
how many ATPs are produced?
38 ATPs
they also help control the concentration of water, calcium, and other charged particles (ions) in the cytoplasm
mitochondria
mitochondria have some of their _______ and ______ that resemble those of _____ cells
own DNA molecules and ribosomes; prokaryotic
human mitochondrial DNA is a closed, circular molecule ____ nucleotide pairs long
16,569
mitochondria are also self-____. They “reproduce” by ______
replicating; splitting in half
mitochondria may have evolved from _____ that once developed a close relationship with primitive eucaryotic cells, and then lost the capacity to live outside the cel
bacteria
another interesting characteristic of human mitochondria is the fact that all of a person’s mitochondria are descendants of those of their what?
mother
two classes of cells
prokaryotic and eukaryotic
include the bacteria and the blue-green algae (the ___ kingdom)
prokaryotes; monera
are all single-celled organisms that lack both a true nucleus and other membrane-bounded cellular substructures
prokaryotes
prokaryotic DNA is usually what?
circular
include plants, animals, protozoa, and fungi.
eukaryotes
these cells contain nuclei and other membrane-bound organelles
eukaryotic cells
the genetic material is organized into chromosomes
eukaryotes
biomolecules are also called as what?
biochemical systems or macromolecules
lipids do not what?
they do not polymerize
proteins found in the body
natural proteins
proteins needed by the body
essential proteins
type of hormone that is injected into a pregnant mother
oxytocin
this tells what protein our body needs
DNA
contain sugar, base and a phosphate group as well
nucleotides
contain only sugar
nucleosides
what forms an ester?
carboxylic acid and alcohol
fatty acids are composed of what?
long chain of carbons (12-18)
this is the used alcohol in lipids
glycerol
when do you say a protein is a true one?
if it is made up of at least 50 amino acids
best souces of energy
carbohydrates and lipids
this glucose is stored in muscles
glycogen
these are dietary lipids and fats and oil
triacylglycerol
leucoplasts are composed of what macromolecules?
carbohydrates and proteins
