Biochem Flashcards
Biology
Study of living organisms
Chemistry
Branch of science that studies the composition properties and structures of substances and their transformation
Cell
Smallest working unit in body and basic structural, functional, and biological unit of life.
Human body is composed of 1014 cells with 250 different types of specialized cells
Cystoplasm
Cellular fluid where organelles float in
Types of tissues
Epithelial tissue - formed by cells that cover the organ surfaces like skin, airways, reproductive tract
Muscle tissue - elongated muscle tissue. Contraction and relaxation of muscle proteins result of movement
Nervous tissue - make up nervous system like CNS and PNS. Consists of nerves made up of neurons, known as nerve cells and neutroglia.
Connective tissue: structural elements where support foundation of organs provide insulating layer (fat) that acts as storage depot and provide as a defensive mechanism
Organ
Structure that consists of two or more types of tissues that work together on same job. ex: kidneys, brain, lungs and skin
Cardiovascular
Organ/Tissue: heart, blood, blood vessels
Function: transports oxygen, hormones, and nutrients to body cells, moves waste and carbon dioxide away from cells
digestive
Organs: Esophagus, Stomach,
Small Intestine, Large Intestine
Function: Digests foods and absorbs nutrients, minerals, vitamins, and water
Endocrine
Organs: Pituitary Gland, Hypothalamus,
Testes, Ovary
Functions: Produce hormones responsible for cellular functions
Nervous
Organs: Brain, Spinal Cord, Nerves
Function: Collects, Processes, and transfers information
Respiratory
Organ: Lungs, Trachea, Larynx, Pharynx
Function: Helps in breathing and respiration
Reproductive
Organs:
Female: uterus; vagina; fallopian tubes; ovaries
Male: penis; testes; seminal vesicles
Function: Produces gametes (sex cells) and sex hor-mones, is responsible for the development of secondary sexual features
Skeletal
Organs:
Bones, cartilage, and ligaments
Function: Provides structural framework
Lymphatic
Organs:
Lymph nodes; lymph vessels
Function:
Defend against infection and disease, moves lymph between tissues and the bloodstream.
Muscular
Organ:
Cardiac Muscle, Skeletal Muscle,
Smooth Muscle
Function: Involved in movement (voluntary and involuntary), heat production
Urinary
Organ:
Kidneys, Urinary Bladder
Function:
Removes extra water, salts, and waste products from blood and body; controls pH; controls water and salt balance
Immune
Organ: Bone Marrow, Spleen, White Blood Cells
Function:
Act as a line of defense, protect the body from antigens
Integumentary
Organ:
Skin, Hair, and Nails
Functions: Provides protection from injury and water loss, physical defense against infection by microorganisms, and temperature control
Ions
Formed when atoms gain or lose electrons
Anion
Negative charge ion
Cation
Positive charged ion
Bond
Attractive force which holds various constituents (atoms, ions) together
Covalent bond
Two or more atoms share electrons
Ionic bond
Electron transfer between atoms
Chemical reaction
Process of breaking and forming bonds like digestion or absorption
Organic chem
Studied the structure properties and reactions of organic compounds which contain carbon in covalent bonding
Organic compounds
Classified based on functional group present such that it is responsible for its characteristics chemical properties.
Ex: Alcohol (-OH) bc it’s a functional group of covalent bonded OH group called hydroxyl group
Inorganic chem
Deals w synthesis and behavior of inorganic and organometallic compounds so not carbon based.
Ex: NaCl
Oxidation
Loss of one or more electrons in atom
Reduction
Gain of one or more electrons by atom
Oxidation-reduction(redox)
Transfer of electrons
Hydrogenation
Treatment of substances w molecular hydrogen (adding pairs of hydrogen to atom)
Require a catalyst for reaction
Ex: trans fatty acids produced by this of the unsaturated oils
Hydrolysis
Addition of water splits bongs in water and added substance
Ex: amylases (enzyme) hydrolyze starch
Digestion
Process of breaking down food particles mechanically and chemically into smaller particles that will be absorbed and used by body
Components of digestive system
Food starts in the oral cavity, then travels through esophagus and then to stomach. Then moves to small and large intestines. Accessory glands like liver and pancreas help digestion by secreting various chem.
Or
1. Breakdown of food
2. Movement of food and liquids through digestive tract
3. Breakdown of carb proteins and fat
4. Absorption and prod of nutrients
5. Excretion of waste products
Salivary Glands
In your mouth begin the chemical digestion of food and also help lubricanting the contents for their passage down the esophagus
Liver
A very large gland in body:
1. Hepatocytes secrete bile which h is required to emulsify and absorb fats in intestine
2. Processes the absorbed nutrients
Gallbladder
Located below the liver and stores the bile produced by hepatocytes of the liver
Pancreas
Its cells secrete a solution of various enzymes called pancreatic juice which aid in digestion
Mechanical digestion
Breakdown of food in smaller bits. Mastication or chewing food breaks the food into smaller parts of the mouth. Note; wavelike movements called peristalsis in gut called food pipe mix food in stomach and breakdown
Chemical digestion
Food to disintegrate even further. Many diff chem are secreted throughout the digestive tract which causes the disintegration of complex food molecules into similar ones
Chemical digestion kinds
Enzymes - biological cats that basically speed up the various reactions. Molecules on which enzymes act are called substrates which then convert to produce products
Hormones - chemical messengers of body. Ex: insulin a hormone secreted by pancreas tells muscle and fat cells to take up glucose
Digestion
Digestion begins in the mouth. As the food comes into the oral cavity, it gets chewed and broken down into smaller particles. Simultaneously, the salivary amylase enzyme gets released from the salivary glands residing in the vicinity. Salivary amylase assists in starch digestion. Mucus in the oral cavity also lubricates the food. The food is then converted into a bolus (a ball of food mixed with fluids) and rolls into the pharynx.
After entering the pharynx, it passes the epiglottis, which is a flap that covers the larynx to close off the air passage. Otherwise, food will simply enter into the air pipe.
From there, the food enters the esophagus.
With peristaltic movements, it reaches into the stomach.
The stomach secretes gastric juice, which mainly contains hydrochloric acid, and pepsin enzyme (enzyme helpful in protein digestion). There is a chance that the churning and mixing in the stomach may push this acidic mix backward into the esophagus. To prevent this, another flap known as the cardiac sphincter closes that back-door. The stomach also secretes mucus to prevent insult from its acidic contents.
• After 1-2 hours of thorough mixing, a thick liquid that contains food and stomach-secretions is formed. This is c chyme. This slowly enters the duodenum - the first part of the small intestine. The pyloric sphincter at the end stomach controls the rate of flow of chyme into the small intestine.
In the small intestine, the pancreatic juice is released from the pancreas, and bile julice is alto poured in from the liver and gallbladder. Pancreatic juices contain various enzymes such as pancreatic lipase and amylase which aid in the digestion of various nutrients (refer to enzymes). Bile helps in fat digestion.
Ater thorough disintegration, the food is absorbed. Most of the food absorption takes place in the small intestine.
The process till this stage, approximately, takes 8 hours.
Then, the remains are further passed down to the large intestine. In the large intestine, water and minerals are reabsorbed into the blood.
Colon, a part of the large intestine, contains a lot of bacteria that produce vitamins such as biotin. They are also reabsorbed into the blood.
Waste is further passed down to the rectum and then eliminated through feces.
Process of Absorption
Once the food is digested, the nutrients need to be absorbed into the bloodstream to circulate and perform their respective functions. Absorption happens via the gastrointestinal tract and moves into the circulatory system. The tracts are folded with several surfaces for absorption, which are lined with villi (hair-like projections) and microvilli cells. These villi simply increase surface area. The more the surface area, the more the contact for nutrient content, the more the absorption.
Absorption mechanism
Passive Transport or Diffusion: Passive transport is the movement from high concentration to lower concentration across a semipermeable membrane (a layer that lets only certain molecules cross il). In our body, water and lipids are absorbed in the intestines by passive diffusion.
- Active transport: Exactly opposite of passive transport. This
happens in the opposite direction of a gradient or other obstructing factor. This requires a form of chemical energy to make the movement possible (which is why its called acive), as this process is actualy the reverse of the natural order of movement (it normally occurs from areas of higher to lower concentration). - Facilitated diffusion: This is the movement from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower conlecule from one side to another. Fructose is absorbed by this method.
concentration which is assisted by a protein. These proteins are known as carrier proteins because they help carry de - Secondary active transport: Utilizes the drive of one molecule through the semi-permeable membrane from higher concentration to lower, to fuel the movement of another from lower to higher. Glucose and amino acids are absorbed by this method (using sodium ions).
- Endocytosis: Endocytosis is a form of active transport in which molecules are transported into the cell by engulfing them in an energy using process because the pores of the membrane are too small for these molecules to pass.
Carbohydrates
Group of organic molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Role is energy creation where after ingestion, carb food is digested and broken down in simplest form called glucose
Carb calories
4
Ways body uses carbs
Body can convert carb to glucose
Body can convert carb to glycogen - which is storied as mobilized gluxose in liver and muscles. So when less sugar in bloodstream, body breaks this down called process glycogenolysis
Body can convert carbs to fat which is done with leftover glucose and store in adipose/fat cells
Carb types
Simple - made up of one or two molecules that is converted into glucose
Monosaccharides- glucose, fructose, Galactose
Diasaccharides - contains more than two sucrose, lactose, maltose, trehalone
Complex- have more than two sugar molecules known as starchy where provide sustained food for body like exercise
Oligosacchrides - contains 3-10 sugar ( Raffinose, Stachyose)
Polysaccharides- more than 10 (Amlyose starch, Glycogen, Inulin, dextrin, cellulosec chitin)
Polysaccharides only made of glucose units
Fiber
Human cannot fully digest this
Per gram of fiber is 2 cal worth of metabolize energy
Regulate body use of sugar by improving insulin sensitivity
Comes from plant based food like fruits vegetables and whole grains
Types of fiber
Soluble - dissolves in water which turns into gel like substance and clears stool from gut and lowers blood cholesterol and glucose levels
Foods: oatmeal, nuts seeds apples blueberries and lentils
Supplement: psyllium husk
Insoluble - doesn’t dissolve in water and exits the same form as they come in. Adds bulk to stool and helps pass quickly to gut
Promotes regularity, prevent consitpation and prevent gastrointestinal health issues like diaherra gastrointestinal bleeding or infection
Foods: wheat whole grain brown rice legumes cucumbers and tomatoes
Glycaemic index
Number that indicates how quickly carb or food raises blood glucose
Higher the GI, the higher the speed carb disintegrates and turn into glucose
This doesn’t not tell u whole pic bc doesn’t not respect the quantity over the impact of the food
Glycamic Load
GL = (GI / 100) * Net grams of planned carbs
Considers the impact of quantity and the GI combined
Lipid
Do not dissolve in water
Made up of hydrogen oxygen carbon and act as a solvent for fat soluble vitamins
Fats are soluble in organic solvents but insoluble in water
Found at room temp solid are fats and found liquid at room temp are called oil
Lipid cal
9
Types of lipids
Fatty Acids - simplest type
Long chains of lipid carboxylic acid (COOOH)
Found in animal fat, veg fat and oils
Can be saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated which is depending on number of bonds. So unsaturated when have double or triple bounds so one double or triple bond if monounsaturated. But if all single bonds then it’s saturated fat
Triglycerides-
Common type in body and foods
Three fatty acids bonded to glycerol (which is the backbone on which fatty acids are attached to form this)
Stored in adipose tissue and source of energy to muscles since adipose is a energy site
Can grow up to 50 times the size and if more fat to store more adipose tissue is formed
Omega 3-6-9 fatty acids -
Final double bond of three carbon atoms at end of chain = Omega 3
Last double bond where 6 or 9 carbon atoms at end of chain = Omega 6/9
Essential fatty acids that cannot be made by human body and they are polyunsaturated acids
Types of Omega 3
Alpha Linoleic Acid (ALA) - found in plant oils
Eicosapentaeonic Acid (EPA)
Docosahexenoix Acid (DHA)
EPA and DHA found in marine oil
Both -
Have 5-6 double bonds
Unable to synthesize so only obtain them through diet
Food: fish and flaxseed
Omega 6 fatty acids
Linoleic acid (LA)
Shorted chain of common omega 6
Human cannot synthesize which means cannot make them and have to ingest it
Lipoproteins
Unlike glucose, fatty acids cannot be absorbed into bloodstream after digestion. So fats gets transported using lipoproteins
Compounds found in bloodstream (like triglycerides and cholesterol ) at center. Have outer shell and compatible to travel in water
4 groups : chylomicrons, VLDL (very low density lipoprotein), LDL (low density lipoprotein) and HDL ( high density lipoprotein)
Chylomicrons
Carry dietary fats after intestinal absorption
Have huge triglycerides content. So as these fatty acids are released from them, the fats gets absorbed by muscle tissue
However this release, results chylomicrons to shrink and become remnants such that storage is exhausted = fate of dietary lipids
VLDL
Exhaust themselves of triglycerides content and become LDL.
Transports the lipid content that liver makes
Liver fat transporters
LDL
Less triglyceride content but have densely packed cholesterol. With lifestyle changes, LDL quality can change to smaller/denser which can form plague called bad cholesterol (happens from sedentary or obesity)
HDL
Liver makes this
Brings cholesterol back from bloodstream to liver - cleans the plaque = good cholesterol
Reverse cholesterol transporter
Lipid role
Metabolism
Source of fuels and absorption of fat soluble vitamins like A D E K
Storehouse of energy nutrition and supplies all essential fatty acids
Provide insulation and protective padding for body structure and cells
Myths
Fat isn’t needed in diet
Fat raises blood glucose
Raises cholesterol
Increase body weight
Saturated fats are worse than trans fats
Protein
Basic unit is amino acids and are nitrogen containing acids
4 cal
3 types of Amino acids
Essential Amino acids - cant synthesize this like the nine essential amino acids:
Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Phenylalanie
Theronine
Tryptophan
Valine
Conditionally Essential Amino Acids : body can make but on conditions like illness supply needs to increase like -
Arginine
Cysteine
Glutamine
Tyrosine
Glycine
Ornithine
Proline
Serine
Non essential amino acids -
Body can make them so ingesting it is not needed like -
Alanine
Arginine
Asparagine
Aspartic acid
Cysteine
Glutamic acids
Glutamine
Glycine
Proline
Serine
Tyrosine
Complete proteins
Have all nine essential amino acids
Foods:
Meat poultry eggs milk fish cheese quinoa soy sauce
Incomplete proteins
Missing one or more nine amino acids
Foods : most plant based sources of protein unless eaten in correct combination
Ex: rice and beans bc beans are low in methionine and high in lysine while rice is low in lysine and high in methionine
Exceptions- bc have compete amino acids like soy or soy related foods like tofu, tempeh and edamame
Quality of protein
Biological value (BV) is measure of how efficiently body utilizes protein absorbed by diet
Higher Val is better bc nitrogen level of absorption is considered and multiplied by 100 and accessing the efficiency of protein
Protein digestibility
Amino acid source (PDCAAS) to measure the quality of protein
Sources of Protein
Solid - beef fish chicken legumes milk cheese and yogurt
Vegan - legumes whole grains nuts seeds seitan soy. Nutritional yeast quinoa spinach potatoes blackberries bananas
Vegetarians - like vegan sources plus eggs cheese
Seafood red meat
Importance of protein
Repair, growth, and recovery. Proteins play role in anabolism (building of cells)
Enzymatic functions: Enzymes are protein catalysts. They combine with cellular substrate fact to mates reactions including digestion and muscle contraction.
Homonal functions: Some proteins are hormones. They help in signal transportation betwe el and bi functions. Examples include insulin and glucagon.
• Structural pillars: Certain proteins act as basal structural components of tissues. They provide rigides and se Examples include elastin in cartilage, collagen in bones and ligaments, and keratin in hair and nails.
Balance of pH: The protein adenylyl cyclase senses the alkaline level in the blood and triggers cascade olde proteins that enable cellular functions to adjust and maintain an acceptable pH level.
• Fluid balance: Fluid balance refers to the balance between Intracellular fluid (within the cells) and extrach (outside the cells). The volume of these fluids is managed by the proteins - albumin and globulin.
• Immunity: Proteins help in forming antibodies that fight infection.
• Transporter proteins: Proteins like lipoproteins are glucose transporters that help transport nutriens.
• Storage proteins: Ferritin proteins store iron.
Excess protein converted into energy through gluonogensis or converted to fat
Myths
Protein increase uric acid
Cause kidney disease
RDA Protein
0.8 g/ kg
ATP
Adenosine Triphosphate
Converts food to unit of energy (chemical to kinetic)
Three structures :
Nitrogen base
Adenine
Sugar (Adenosine)
Chain of three phosphates bound to ribose
Energy obtained from ATP
Energy is Trapped in bonds between phosphate molecules
Outer phosphate is removed from ATP to yield kinetic energy (hydrolysis) and after process the results are Adenosine and two molecules of phosphate called ADP (Adenosine Di Phosphate). And if last phosphate is removed the resulting structure is Adensione Mono Phosphate (AMP)
Energy used to perform voluntary and involuntary activities
ATP loses a phosphate to form ADP, releasing energy while ADP is recharged by taking in a smaller amount of energy to again form ATP
3 metabolic pathways
Anaerobic (w/o use of oxygen)
- ATP-Phosphaocreatine (PC)
- Glycoysis (Latic Acid System)
Aerobic (w use of oxygen)
- Oxidative (w oxygen)
Anaerobic glycolysis
Uses carbs (stored in muscles and liver as glycogen) and is slower than ATP - PC. Pathway occurs in the cytoplasm and does not use oxygen. Last step produces ATP molecules, which is broken down for energy. The leftover pyruvate gets converted into lactic acid, which requires oxygen for its further processing. Short duration activities are reliant on system like weight lifting, running to boundary to chase a ball
Aerobic Oxidation or Aerobic Glycolysis process
The Aerobic Oxidative or Aerobic
Glycolysis process also uses
carbohydrates, but can also use fats.
It is a slow starter but can help sustain long-duration activities. It occurs in the mitochondria of our cells and ATP is produced when the substrates are used up in the presence of oxygen. With the oxygen being available, the pyruvate leftover from glycolysis and fatty acids get converted into Acetyl CoA. Acetyl-CoA is a molecule that participates in many biochemical reactions in protein, carbohydrate, and lipid metabolism.
It enters into the Kreb cycle, which is a process that keeps breaking down molecules until it gets 2 ATP’s.
Kreb cycles release carbon dioxide or CO2 (and Hydrogen ions). CO2 is carried via blood to the lungs to be breathed out. The bi products of the Kreb cycle enter further processes (Electron Transport Chain) to provide more ATPs. One cycle of Aerobic Oxidation provides approximately 32 ATPs. This process fuels long-duration aerobic activities like marathons, continuous rounds of swimming, and cycling.
Anaerobic energy system
Fast supply but smaller storage
Aerobic system
Larger storage but smaller supply
Macronutrient available to produce ATP
After carbs, fats are the next best macro for ATP production.
Fats have greater capacity to generate ATP but takes longer to metabolize fat as a resource for ATP production.
Human body contains 90000-110000 kcals of energy that can be generated from fat stores as against glycogen stores that contain around 2000 kcals worth of energy.
Protein can be used for ATP production however will be only used after carbs and fats energy have been depleted.
Alcohol impact on energy systems
Classified as macro it does little to help with energy production. It can negatively impact the performance bc of its diuretic effects and ability to interfere w liver function
Regeneration of ATP
ATP supply is limited
Regeneration of used up ADP back to ATl is done with PCr (PhosphoCreatine) which is a a store of high energy phosphate molecules sorted in muscle.
amount of PCr is proportion to muscle mass where the enzyme called creatine kinase helps liberate the phosphate from PCr that can then get attached to ADP to form ATP.
Fuel body up to 10 sec
