biochem Flashcards
organic compounds are all
carbon based
inorganic
are non living matter that lack carbon
hydrocarbons are made up of:
hydrogen and carbon
the polarity of hydrocarbons is:
non-poplar, meaning they do not dissolve in water.
the boiling point of hydrocarbons is:
low
hydrocarbons are good fuels;
this makes them very flammable.
a functional group is:
a cluster of atoms that always behaves in a certain way.
certain functional groups are associated with:
certain chemical properties.
what are the seven functional groups?
hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate, carbonyl, ketone
where is hydroxyl found in?
alcohol
give an example of an alcohol.
ethanol
carboxyl is found in:
acids
an example of an acid is:
vinegar
amino is found in:
bases
an example of a base is:
ammonia
sulfhydryl is found in:
rubber and proteins
phosphate is found in:
ATP and nucleic acids
carbonyls have two groups. they are:
aldehydes and ketone.
aldehydes are found in:
formaldehyde, cinnamaldehyde (cinnamon bark)
ketone is found in:
proteins and lipids.
biological molecules are made up of:
a hydrogen chain and a functional group
functional groups are more what than hydrocarbon?
reactive
amino acids contain:
an amino and carboxyl group, used to build proteins
carboxyl group makes a molecule:
acidic
amino group makes a molecule
basic
an acid is:
a molecule that donates a proton
a base is:
a molecule that receives a proton
pH of base/acid:
acid: -7 // base: +7
a covalent bond happens between:
two non metals
an ionic bond happens between:
a metal/semi-metal and a non metal
oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon are all:
non metals
to figure out if a molecule is capable of forming hydrogen bonds:
make sure it is polar. if it contains OH or NH, it is capable of forming hydrogen bonds.
what are the four classes of biologically important molecules?
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
example of carbohydrate:
starch
example of lipids:
triglycerides
example of proteins:
enzymes
example of nucleic acids:
DNA
define macromolecule:
large molecules made up of repeating sub-units that are covalently linked.
what are polymers made out of?
repeating smaller molecules called monomers
main purpose of carbohydrates:
to store energy
carbohydrates are macromolecules made up of:
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
what’s the ratio for carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in carbohydrates?
1:2:1
(CH2O)n; what is n?
the number of carbon atoms
the four groups carbohydrates are classified in are:
monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.
monosaccharide:
simple sugars with 3-7 carbon atoms
simple sugars have:
a single chain of carbon atoms to which hydroxyl groups are attached.
disaccharide:
two monosaccharides
oligosaccharide:
3-10 monosaccharides
polysaccharide:
10+ monosaccharides
isomers are:
molecules with the same number and type of atoms in different structural arrangements.
two things glucose, fructose, and galactose have in common:
- monomers
- isomers
is fructose or glucose sweeter?
fructose
define glycosidic linkage:
the covalent bonds formed between the hydroxyl groups on the monosaccharides in a dissacharide.
glycosidic linkages are a result of:
condensation/dehydration reactions
lipids are made out of:
hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen atoms
lipids are:
hydrophobic; insoluble in water but soluble in non polar substances.
two things lipids do:
store energy and build membranes/cell parts
do lipids or carbohydrates store more energy?
lipids provide more than double the energy per gram that carbs do
lipids provide long term energy; what does that mean in relation to carbs?
they’re processed by the body after carbohydrate stores have been used up.
other two things lipids do:
insulate against heat loss and form protective cushions around major organs
they help make fur, feathers, and leaves:
water repelling (hydrophobic?)
three major groups of lipids:
- oils, fats, waxes
- phospholipids
- steroids
triglycerides are composed of:
one glycerol molecule and three fatty acids linked by ester bonds
an ester bond is:
a double bond between an oxygen atom and another atom.
a fatty acid is a:
hydrocarbon chain that ends with a carboxyl group
a saturated fatty acid:
has no double bonds between carbon atoms (only single bonds)
an unsaturated fatty acid:
has one or more double bonds between carbon atoms.
how are the double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids formed?
by removing hydrogen atoms.
monosaturated means:
the unsaturated fatty acid has only one double bond
polyunsaturated means:
the unsaturated fatty acid has more than one double bond between carbon atoms.
unsaturated double bonds between carbon atoms create a:
kink in the chain
unsaturated fatty acids do not fit closely together. this makes them:
liquid at room temperature
saturated fatty acids are:
solid at room temperate
unsaturated fatty acids do not fit closely together. this makes them:
liquid at room temperature
saturated fatty acids are:
solid at room temperate
hydrogenation means:
chemically adding hydrogen to unsaturated fatty acids to make saturated fats (margarine)
three examples of polysaccharides:
starch, glycogen, cellulose
starch is used for:
storage in plants
extra glucose turns into:
glycogen in animals
starch and glycogen’s structure differs in the number and type of:
branching side chains
why is glycogen broken down more easily than starch?
because it has more branches attached to it (more surface area)
cellulose function:
provide structural support in plant cell walls
alpha vs beta glucose:
hydroxyl (1) UP in ALPHA, hydroxyl (1) DOWN in BETA
alpha and beta glucose in human digestion:
can digest alpha glucose, can’t digest beta glucose
cholesterol is what and produced where?
a lipid, produced in the liver
cholesterol increases:
membrane fluidity
body produces x% of needed cholesterol:
80%
excess cholesterol can cause:
heart disease
what is heart disease?
the hardening of the arteries
lipoproteins:
transport cholesterol and undigested trans fats through the body in the bloodstream.
HDL and LDL:
HDL: high density lipoprotein
- cleans up LDL
- the ‘good’ cholesterol
LDL: low density lipoprotein
- clogs up arteries (the one that gets stuck)
- the ‘bad’ cholesterol
example of a wax:
cutin (plants), beeswax (in honeycombs)
structure of a phospholipid:
one glycerol molecule, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group (a triglyceride but with a phosphate group replacing the third fatty acid)
phosphate head vs tail:
head is hydrophilic, tails are hydrophobic
micelles are:
spheres that form when phospholipids are added to water
steroid composition:
four carbon rings attached to each other
examples of steroids:
tetosterone, estrogen
sterols are:
a lipid subgroup of steroids; a hydrophobic molecule containing 4 fused hydrocarbon rings w different functional groups attached
testosterone:
regulates sexual function and aids in building bone and muscle mass
estrogen:
regulates sexual function in females and acts to increase the storage of fat
cholesterol:
made by mammals (can also enter body as part of a diet)
cholesterol can be converted into (two examples):
vitamin D and bile salts
vitamin D is:
used for bones and teeth
bile salts are:
used to digest fats
in medicine, steroids are used to:
reduce inflammation
anabolic steroids are:
synthetic compounds that mimic male sex hormones (can be used to build muscle mass)
cis vs trans double bonds:
cis double bonds: hydrogen atoms on SAME SIDE
trans double bonds: hydrogen atoms on OPPOSING SIDES
cis double bonds make fats:
liquid at room temperature
why do fats go rancid?
oxidization of fats breaks the long chains into shorter chains
partial hydrogenation:
when hydrogen is added to double bonds, which become single songs. PT means only some of the double bonds have hydrogen added to them.
how to make trans fats:
all the cis double bonds that are not hydrogenated in the process of partial hydrogenation become trans.
manufacturers liked trans fats because:
- lasted longer
- convenient semi-solid property
- thought to be as healthy as the unsaturated fats they were made from until recently
proteins are found:
in over 50% of dry cell mass
proteins are made of:
amino acids
formula for an amino acid:
carbon bonded to an amino group + carboxyl group + r group + hydrogen
x many amino acids:
twenty different ones
amino acids are AMPHIPROTIC:
can donate or accept a proton (contains both base and acid)
cation:
ion with positive charge (loses one or more electrons)
anion:
ion with negative charge (gains one or more electrons)
polypeptides are:
polymers composed of many amino acids
amino acids are held together by:
peptide bonds
peptide bonds result from:
a condensation reaction between the carboxyl and amino groups of the amino acids
how many essential amino acids are there?
9
polypeptide groups always have:
an amino group on one end (a-terminus) and a carboxyl group on the other (c-terminus)
a proteins final shape is determined by:
the amino acid sequence
intramolecular forces occur:
between atoms within a molecule
an atom’s electronegativity determines:
how strongly it attracts electrons
oxygen, nitrogen, and chlorine have:
high electronegativity
hydrogen, carbon, and phosphorus have:
low(er) electronegativity
O-H are:
polar covalent
intermolecular forces occur:
between different molecules
are inter or intra molecular forces stronger?
intra
hydrogen bonds are x than ionic and covalent bonds
weaker
water is essential for life:
- photosynthesis
- thermoregulation
- shock absorber
- medium
qualities of water:
colorless, odorless, mostly tasteless
three types of intermolecular bonding:
- london dispersion force
- dipole-dipole
- hydrogen bonding
miscible:
liquids dissolve into one another
immiscible:
liquids do not dissolve into one another
h-bonds lock into x in the solid state:
lattice structure
cohesion:
water molecules hydrogen bonding with each other
adhesion:
water molecules hydrogen bonding with other materials
the four levels of protein organization are:
primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure, quaternary structure
describe primary structure:
a linear sequence of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. determined by genes in DNA.
an example of primary structure:
sickle cell anemia
describe secondary structure:
alpha helix OR beta pleated sheet, formed via hydrogen bonds between polar peptide bonds in neighboring amino acids
describe tertiary structure:
supercoiling of polypeptide chains stabilized by R group interactions and disulfide bridges.
tertiary structures are primarily a result of:
hydrophobic forces, as the cell is aqueous
a disulfide bridge is:
the covalent links between two sulfur atoms of two cysteine amino acids
describe quaternary structure:
when two or more polypeptide subunits form a functional protein
denaturation is:
the process in which proteins unravel.
denaturation can be caused by:
exposure to different conditions from those in which they were produced (change in temperature, pH, aqueous environment, etc)
a denatured protein CANNOT:
perform its biological function
relationship between tertiary structure and heat:
heat can disrupt H-bonds, ionic bonds, disulfide bridges, and hydrophobic interactions that keep tertiary structure.
nucleic acids store:
hereditary information
hereditary information determines:
structural and functional characteristics
DNA:
deoxyribonucleic acid; contains instructions for creating an organism
RNA:
ribonucleic acid, reads the information in the DNA
DNA and RNA are made up of:
polymers made of thousands of repeating nucleotide monomers
a nucleotide is:
a nucleoside linked to a phosphate group
a nucleoside is:
a compound commonly found in DNA and RNA
london dispersion bonding is:
a temporary attractive force that occurs when electrons in two adjacent toms occupy positions that make the atoms form temporary dipoles (weakest of the intra molecular forces)
dipoles are:
a pair of equal and opposite electric charges or magnetic poles separated by a small distance
dipole dipole forces are:
attractive forces between the oppositely charged ends of polar molecules
a nucleotide is made out of:
a phosphate group
a nitrogen-containing base
a five carbon sugar
all are covalently bonded together
DNA contains X sugar:
deoxyribose sugar; lacks an oxygen at carbon 2 (carbon 2 connected to two hydrogen atoms)
RNA contains X sugar:
ribose sugar (carbon two connected to a hydrogen atom facing inward and a hydroxyl group)
there are x number of y based bases:
there are five nitrogen based bases.
the bases are seperated into:
purines and pyrimidines
purines are x size and are:
purines are LARGE (double ring)
adenine
guanine
pyrimidines are x size and are:
pyrimidines are SMALL (single ring)
cytosine
thymine
uracil
adjacent nucleotides are held together:
by a covalent bond that forms between the hydroxyl group on one nucleotide and the phosphate group on the other (condensation reaction)
a phosphodiester bond/linkage is:
the force that holds adjacent nucleotides together.
the backbone of a nucleic strand:
alternates phosphates and sugars
the nitrogenous bases are:
adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine
the two pairs in DNA are:
adenine and thymine
guanine and cytosine
the two pairs in RNA are:
adenine and uracil
guanine and cytosine
structure of DNA:
a double helix that resembles a ladder when unwound
rungs of DNA ladder are made up of:
complementary base pairs held together by hydrogen bonds
structure of RNA:
singled stranded and therefore lacks complementary base pairing
