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1st Year Uni > bio202 > Flashcards

bio202 Flashcards

1
Q

what are the steps of clonal selection?

A

1) antigen binds to B cell with specific antigen receptor
2) B cellclones itself to create army
3) some become either memory cells or effector cells
4) effector cells release antibodies into blood/ lymph
5)antigens are dissolved by macrophages

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2
Q

What’s the difference between primary and secondary immune responses?

A

Primary occurs upon first exposure and is slower, whereas secondary occurs during later exposures and is faster and stronger

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3
Q

what’s the invertebrate immune system consist of?

A

1)exo skeleton
2) additional protective barriers
3) low pH
4)enzyme lysozyme
5) immune cell capable of phagocytosis (ingestion of foreign substance)

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4
Q

how does the carbon cycle go?

A

1) photosyntesis
2)cellular respiration or decompsing/ burning releases CO2
3) plants intake said Co2

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5
Q

what is the function of an antibody

A

an antibody functions by neutralising the antigen, and using its binding sites it clumps other cells. then links to dissolve the antigens (precipitation)

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6
Q

whats the purpose of an inflammatory response?

A

-disinfected infected tissue
-limits spread of infection to surrounding tissue

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7
Q

Whats social learning

A

Learning by observing the behaviours of others

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8
Q

What are auto-immune diseases

A

Dieases that makes the immune system turn against itself

Ex.
Lupus, arthiritus, type 1 diabetes

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9
Q

What are allergies and allergens?

A

Allergies are hypersensitive responses to otherwise non harmful antigens in the surroundings, allergens are antigens that trigger said responses

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10
Q

What are immuno-deficiency diseases?

A

When the immune system UNDER-reacts/ doesnt react and may be caused by:

Radiation, physical/emotional stress, cancer in lymphatic system

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11
Q

Whats HIV and AIDS

A

HIV is a human immunodefiency virus. AIDS (aquired immunodefiency syndrome) is a result of HIV. AIDS attacks helper T cells and halts cellular mediated/humoral immune responses)

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12
Q

What is associative learning?

A

When an animal links a particular stimulus/trigger with a certain outcome

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13
Q

What is spatial learning?

A

When animals associate certain landmarks to indicate:

Food sources
Hazards
Nests/homes

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14
Q

How may the interaction of the environment and an animals genes affect behaviours?

A

-modifies how genetic instructions are carried out
-specific environments when raising off springs affect behaviour

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15
Q

What is imprinting?

A

When an animal is in the part of its “sensitive period” and learns something, its usualy long term and irreversible

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16
Q

What are innate behaviours/FAP’s

A

Innate behaviours are genetic and performed similarly between all individuals of a specifc species. FAP’S (Fixed action patterns) are unchangeable actions triggered by a specifc stimuli

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17
Q

How do allergic reactions occur?

A

By a 2 stage reaction

1) sensitisation (upon first exposure)
2) allergen binds to mast cells and releases histamine cells and causes irritation

(They are fast responses and occur in nose, lungs and skin)

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18
Q

What does the inflammatory response do?

A

Disinfects infected tissue and limits spread of infection to surrounding tissue

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19
Q

What does lymph do?

A

Circulates through lymphatic organs and collects microbes/microbal toxins and transports to lymphatic organs where macrophages engulf toxins and digest them

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20
Q

What are the types of interspecific interactions?

A

1- competitive
2- mutalism
3-predatory
4-herbivory
5-parasite

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21
Q

Whats the difference between innate and adaptive immunity

A

Innate acts immediately and are the same whether upon first or other exposure

Adaptive activated after exposure to specific pathogen and are different depending on what its been previously exposed to

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22
Q

What are the different tropic levels?

A

1) producers (self feeding and supprts others)
2) primary >secondary > tertiary > quateriary
3) decomposers (link all tropic levels)

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23
Q

How does the cytotoxic T cell destroy?

A
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24
Q

What are tge types of prey protective mechanisms

A

Camoflague, mechanical defences (hard shell, spines), chemical defences (bad taste, toxins)

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25
Q

What are steps of the phophorus cycle

A

1) weathering rocks releases inorganic PO4-3 into soil
2) plants turn it organic
3)consumers obtain organic P by consuming plants
4)decomposers release P inorganic
5) some phosphate in terrestrial areas settle into water on new rocks and repeats the cycle

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26
Q

What are detrivitores and decomposers?

A

Detrivitores derive energy from dead material

Decomposers release enzymes that digest organic material and turn them inorganic

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27
Q

What is anaphylactic shock?

A

-an allergic reaction that may be lethal
-treated with epinephrine injections

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28
Q

What are the steps of the nitrogen cycle?

A

1) nitrogen fixation where bacteria on plants takes inorganic N and supplies plant with usable N
2) converts N2 to NH3 then NH4
3) Some plants use and some convert to N03 (readily usable)
4) herbivores gain N and protiens become amino acids
5) during protien metabolism nitrogen watse products are formed or some is used within tissues
6) decomp releases NH4 back to soil
7) denitrifying bacteria strips O2 from NO3 and releases N2 into atmophere

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29
Q

What does the vertebrate innate immune system include?

A
  • skin/ mucus membrane
    -interferons (protiens that limit spread)
  • phagocytic cells
    -macrophages
    -natural killer cells
    -complement system (30+ protiens that help with other defences)
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30
Q

What are 2 types of lympocytes and thier functions?

A

B cells
-develop in bone marrow
-releases anti bodies
-takes action against free floating antigens
-defence

T cells
-develops in thymus
-action against infected cells
-promotes phagocytosis by stimulating B cells
-attacks infected

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31
Q

What does the lymphatic system consist of ?

A

-lymph (fluid)
-lymph nodes
-lymphatic vessels (contain 1 way pumps)

Lymphatic system returns tissue fluid back to circulatory system and fights infections.

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32
Q

What is an antigen?

A

Antigens are any molecule that triggers the adaptive immunity system
-may be pathogens, viruses, spores, bacteria

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33
Q

What are antibodies?

A

-protiens in blood plasma that counter antigen effects

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34
Q

How does cytotoxic T cell destroy

A

After helper T cells signal cytotoxic T cells, they attach to antigen presenting cells then begin fighting

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35
Q

Whats the difference between excitory and inhibitory effects?

A

Excitory opens Na+ channels
Inhibitory opens Cl/K channels

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36
Q

What is the circulatory system?

A

The system that contains the heart, blood and vessels. It aquired nutrents, exchanges gases and disposes of waste products

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37
Q

What are 3 types of vessels

A
  • arteries (heart to organs)
    -veins (returns blood to heart)
    -capillaries (conveys blood between arterirs and veins within tissues
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38
Q

What is a double circulation

A

Blood pumped twice. Includes

-pulmonary circuit (carries blood to heart and gas exchange tissues in lung)
-systemic circuit (carries blood from heart to rest of body)

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39
Q

What is the function of the autonomic nervous system and what are the 3 divisions

A

It regulates the internal environment and happens involunatry. The 3 divisions are

1) parasympathetic (rest and digest -primes for gain/consevring energu)
2)sympathetic (fight or flight- primes for energy using activities)
3) entric (controls digestive system and is a network of nerouns)

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40
Q

What are the components of the forebrain and thier mahor functions

A

1) cerebrum (performs integration of info, plays role in memory, learning, speech& behavioural repsonses)
2) thalamus (input center for sensory data, analyses incomjng sensory data for cerebrum)
3) hypothalamus (homostatic control center &controls pitiuary

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41
Q

What are the components if the hindbrain and the major functions?

A

1) pons (controls breathing)
2) medulla oblongata (breathing circulation, swallowing, digestion)
3) cerebellum ( coordinates body movements and plays role in learning/motor responses)
4) brainstem (conducts data to and from brain centers, coordinates body movement and homostatis)

42
Q

Whats the function of the midbrain?

A

Recieves and analyses auditory data, visual reflexes and sends sensory data to higher brain centers

43
Q

What is the corpus callosum?

A

A thick band if nerve fibers that helps communication between right and left cerebral hemispheres

44
Q

What are the 4 lobes and gheir assoviation areas?

A

1) Frontal (motor& speech)
2) Parietal lobe (stomasensory, touch using skin,
3)occipital lobe (visual)
4)temperal lobe(smell, auditory)

45
Q

Whats the difference between rhodospin and photospin

A

Rhodospin is visual pigment that works in dim light and photospin absorbs bright coloured light

46
Q

What are the basal nuclei?

A

A group of neurons located under the corpus callum that help in motor coordination

47
Q

What are the 2 areas taht form the boundry between the frontal and parital lobe?

A

Motor and stomasensory cortex

The motor cortex sends commands to skeletal muscles and signals responses to sensory stimuli

The stomasensory recieves and partially integrates signals from touch, pain, pressure and temp receptors

48
Q

Whats the laterisation between the left and reight cerebral hemispheres

A

The left is logical, detailed skeletal mater control, processing auditory details

Right is creative, spatial relativity, pattern recognition and non verbal thinking

49
Q

What do sensory receptors do?

A

When stimuli is detected, the receptors triggers action potential and send info to CNS

50
Q

What are the 4 steps for sensory stimuli to be percieved

A

1) Reception
2) transduction
3) transmittion
4) processing

51
Q

What is sensory transduction?

A

When receptor cell converts the stimulus to an electrical signal and produces change in cells membrane potential

52
Q

What is receptor potential?

A

Changes in flow of ions create an electrical charge difference in sensory receptors

53
Q

What is sensory transmission?

A

After stimulus converted to receptor potential, it results in signals passing into CNS. Neurotransmitters are secreted at synapses and they trigger action potentials which travel to brain

54
Q

What are 5 types of receptors

A

1) pain receptors
2)thermoreceptors
3) mechnoreceptors (touch/pressure)
4) chemoreceptors (in nose/tastebuds that respond to chemicals)
5)electromagnetic (electric, various wavelengths of light)

55
Q

What are the affects of stronger stimuli vs repeated stimuli?

A

Stronger stimuli gives more receptor potential and more action potential to brain

Repeated stimuli may allow some sensory receptors to become less sensitive and brain starts to lose awareness of stimuli

56
Q

What are the 4 types of mechnoreceptors?

A

1) slight touches (mechanic energy
2) pressure sensor (stimulus by strong presusre deep in skin)
3) touch receptor around hair base
4)found in skeletal muscle changes

57
Q

What are the 2 functional components of the PNS

A

1) The motor sysrem
2) the autonomic nervous system

58
Q

What is the motor system?

A

Carries signals from CNS to skeletal muscles in response to external stimuli (voluntary)

59
Q

What are the 5 sensations of tastebuds?

A

1) sweet
2)salty
3)sour
4)biiter
5)umami (meaty)

60
Q

What are the 2 types of circulatory systems?

A

Open and closed

In open, fluids are pumped through open ended vessels and flows out to cells

In closed, blood is confined to vessels

61
Q

What happens during odor stimulus

A

1) binds to specfic receptor protiens on cilia
2) binding triggers and generates action potential
3) integration in brain results in perceptions
4) sensory neurons in upper portion of nasal cavity sends impulses along axons to alfactory bulb of brain
6) brain integrates inputs from receptors and percieves flavours

62
Q

What happens when membrane disks absorb light?

A

1)changes chemically and alters permeability of cell membrane
2) receptor potential triggers change in neurotransmittors release from synpatic terminals
3) initiates integrates process in retina
4) action potentials carry info to brain thry optic nerve

63
Q

Difference between tastebud and nasal cavity chemoreceptors

A

Tastebuds detect molecules in solution while nasal cavities detect airborne molecules

64
Q

What are prostaglandins?

A

Chems that increase pain by increasing pain receptor sensitivity

65
Q

What are the types of chemoreceptors

A

In nose/tastebuds

Internal ( sensors in artieries that detect changes of O² in blood)

Osmoreceptors (in brain detect changes in solute of blood and stimulates thirst)

66
Q

What are 2 types of synapes?

A

Electic- electric current flows from neurons through junctions

Chemical- presynapic cell excretes a neurotransmittrr which crosses the synaptic cleft and neurotransmitter binds to receptor kn surface of post synaptic cell

67
Q

What are the 2 types of photoreceptors

A

Rods (for dim light and found in outer edges of retina and not present in fovea, only monochrome)

Cones (stimulated by light and disguishes colour -blue, red, green)

68
Q

What are the funcyions of the 2 fluid chambers found in the eye?

A

1) viterous humour (behind lens, jellylike)

2) aqueous humour (infront of lens)

[They help maintain eyeball shape and circulate nutrients and O² to lens, iris and cornea)

69
Q

What are the steps of hearing

A

1) sound waves are collected by pinea
2)go thru ear drum and vibrate ear
3)small bones amp vibrations
4) cochlea turns to electric signals
5) auditory nerves transport signal to brain

70
Q

How does the cochlea digistinguid between range of pitch

A
71
Q

What are causes of deafness?

A

1) middle ear infections
2) raptured ear drums
3) stiffening of middle ear bone
4) damage to sensory receptors
5) prolonged exposure to sounds over 85 dB (destroys hair cells)

72
Q

What in the inner ear detect body position movement and balance?

A

1) 3 semicircle canals detect changes in head rate of rotation/movement

2) utricle and saccule (detect position of head w respect to gravity)

They operate by bending of hairs on hair cells

73
Q

How does the cupula work?

A

The cupula is a gelationus mass projected by hair cells

1) the fluid moves slower than ur head and bends the hairs
2)faster head movements =greater pressure=higher freq of action potentials
3) rotating your head constantly makes canal fluid move w head where pressure to cupula is reduced and stopping causes dizziness

74
Q

What is the blood brain barrier?

A

Selective barrier in brain capillaries that allow essential nutrients but keep out metabolic waste

75
Q

how does the blood cycle work

A

1)the right atruim pumps to right ventricle which pumps O2 poor blood to lung via pulmonary artery
2) blood flows through capillaries and become O2 rich and unflows CO2. the blood goes through pulmonary veins to left atrium.
3)left atrium to left ventricle
4)the left ventricle pumps blood to systemic circuit (through aorta)
5) O2 poor blood goes thru superior vena cava from upper body and inferior vena cava from lower body and connect back to right atrium

76
Q

how does the aorta pump blood

A

1) from the aorta, the
coronary arteries supply blood to the heart
muscle itself.
2) branches leading to the
head, chest and arms.
3) The aorta descends into the
abdomen, supplying it with O2 rich blood
and the legs.

77
Q

What is the cardiac cycle

A

1)Blood enters right atrium from vena cavae and from pulmonary veins to left atrium.
2) the AV valves are open and semilunar valves are closed
3) contraction phase begins and atria fills ventricle with blood in 0.1 sec
4) the VA valves close and semilunar valves open

78
Q

what is diastole

A

when heart is relaxed and blood flows to heart chambers

79
Q

what is cardiac output and heart rate

A

cardiac output is ml of blood that each ventricle pumps out per min

heartrate is no. of beats per min

80
Q

how does the sinoatrial node work?

A

1) the signals spread through both atria and make them contract
2) then the AV node delays the electrical signal to make time for the blood to empty out from atria before ventricles contract
3) signal relays to apex which relays the signal out to ventricles and drives blood out of heart

81
Q

what is an ECG and how does it work

A

its a machine that detects electrical impulses in the heart and can
provide data about heart health

82
Q

what happens during a heart attack?

A

It is damage or death of cardiac muscle tissue and usually results from a blocked coronary artery.

  • SA node is unable to maintain normal rhythm. Electrical shocks by
    defibrillator rests the SA and restores cardiac function.
83
Q

what is a stroke

A

Death of brain tissue due to the lack of O2 resulting from the rupture or blockage of
arteries in the head.

84
Q

what is blood pressure

A

is the force that blood exerts on vessel walls created by the pumping of the heart.

  • it drives the flow of blood from heart
    through arteries and arterioles to capillary
  • it is the highest in arteries and lowest in veins
  • can be measured by systolic pressure (ventricular contraction)
    and diastolic pressure (low pressure between contractions)
85
Q

what is hypertension and its effects?

A

Hypertension (high blood pressure) is when blood pressure is persistent at or above 140 systolic and/or 90 diastolic

-weakens heart over time, increases plaque and blood clot formation
- contributes to heart attacks, strokes, kidney failure

86
Q

what does blood consist of?

A

55% plasma, 45% cellular elements

55% - water, ions, plasma protiens, blood transported substances

45% - red cells, white blood cells, platlets

87
Q

what happens to red blood cells after 3-4 months

A

they are broken down by molecules and the iron is recycled back to bone marrow, where more red blood cells are made ( 2mil per sec)

88
Q

what is anemia and the effects?

A

Anemia can be caused by abnormally low amounts of hemoglobin/ low number of red blood cells

  • it causes fatigue and lack of oxygen in tissues
89
Q

what does erythropoietin do (from kidney)

A

Regulates red blood cell production by stimulating bone marrow to produce more red blood cells.

90
Q

what happens when a blood vessel is damaged?

A

1)platelets quickly stick to exposed connective tissue and release chemicals that make near platelets sticky which forms a plug
2) clotting factors set off chain reactions that culminate in formation of a reinforced patch called a scab.
3) an activated enzyme converts fibrinogen to a threadlike protein called fibrin which reinforce the plug forming a clot.
4) within an hour platelets contract pulling the torn edges together and chemicals released by platelets stimulate cell division in smooth muscle/ connective tissue to start healing process

91
Q

what happens when a stem cell divides and what are the types?

A

one daughter cell stays a stem cell, the other takes on a specialized function

they either become lymphocytes (in immune system) or myeliod stem cells which are in blood)

92
Q

what is leukemia

A

cancer in white blood cells

-can be treated by radiation chemotherapy, or replacing cancerous bone marrow with healthy bone marrow

93
Q

what does acetylcholine do?

A

Depending on neurons it may be inhibitory or excitory. its released by

-motor neurons to activate skeletal muscles
-PNS neurons that affect internal organs and glands
-neurons in the CNS that affect memory, learning

  • also makes skeletal muscles contract but slows rate of contraction of cardiac muscles.
94
Q

what do Glutamate and GABA do?

A

They are in CNS,

Glutamate acts as excitatory synapse and plays role in memory

GABA acts as inhibitory synapses

95
Q

what are 3 types of biogenic amines and their functions in CNS?

A

norepinephrine - excitory in PNS and functions as hormone

serotonin/dopamine - affect sleep, mood, learning, attention

[reduced levels of norepinephrine and seratonin link to depression. High dopamine = schizophrenia, low dopamine = parkinsons disease]

96
Q

what are endorphins?

A

peptides that decrease our perception of pain during times of physical or emotional stress

  • released in response to stimuli including traumatic injury, muscle fatigue, and
    eating very spicy foods
  • Decreases sensation of pain and produces feeling of euphoria
97
Q

what happens when the eye focuses on a near object?

A

muscles contract pulling the choroid toward the lens. Then the elastic lens becomes thicker and rounder (called accommodation)

98
Q

what happens when the eye focuses on a distant object?

A

ciliary muscles relax, and the choroid moves away from the lens which puts tension on the ligaments and flattens the elastic lens

99
Q

what are the 3 common visual problems?

A

Nearsightedness - inability to focus on
distant objects, but they can see well at short distances. (caused by an eyeball that is too long)

Farsightedness - inability to focus on close
objects, caused by an eyeball that is too
short)

Astigmatism - blurred vision caused by a
misshapen lens or cornea. light rays don’t focus at one point on the retina

100
Q

What is glucoma

A

Damage of optic nerve. It caused by an excess of aqueous humor, leading to
increased pressure in the eye which pressure damages the optic nerve

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