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bio112 Flashcards

1
Q

how many oceans are there?

A

5

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2
Q

how many ocean basins are there?

A

4

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3
Q

what is the mid-ocean system

A

marks the zones of sea floor spreading on the Earth’s surface

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4
Q

Which part of a continental margin is biologically richest?

A

The continental shelf

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5
Q

Tectonic plates are part of what?

A

are part of the lithosphere

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6
Q

The deep sea makes up approximately what proportion of the Earth’s surface?

A

60%

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7
Q

what percentage of the worlds population live with 100km of the coast?

A

40%

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8
Q

name all the oceans.

A

Artic oceans
Southern ocean
Indian ocean
Pacific ocean
Atlantic ocean

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9
Q

name all the ocean basins

A

Pacific
Atlantic
Indian
Arctic

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10
Q

Facultative symbiosis describes a close relationship between biological organisms that is

A

optional

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11
Q

A benthic lifestyle is when an organism

A

is associated with the sea floor

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12
Q

A pelagic lifestyle is when an organism

A

swims in the water column

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13
Q

What is the approximate percent by which energy/biomass decreases with every increase in trophic level?

A

90%

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14
Q

what ocean cycle is mostly absorbed from the atmosphere but also the ocean floor

A

carbon

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15
Q

Phosphorus is mostly present as what as it exits in the oceans sediment

A

phosphate

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16
Q

Nitrogen needs to be fixed before it becomes bioavailable as

A

nitrate
nitrite
ammonia

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17
Q

what are the three ocean cycles

A

carbon
nitrogen
phosphorous

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18
Q

what are the terms in ocean ecology

A

Community
- All populations of organisms living in a defined area

Habitat
- The physical place where an organism lives

Niche
- The resources that an organism uses to grow, survive and reproduce

Ecosystem
A biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment

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19
Q

give the definitions for Inter-specific competition: Fundamental niche and Realised niche

A

Fundamental niche – the set of conditions under which an organism could possibly live

Realised niche – the set of conditions under which an organism does live

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20
Q

what are the types of symbiosis

A

Facultative: convenient, not essential

Obligate: essential

Mutualism - both species benefit

Commensalism – one species benefits with no apparent harm on the other

Parasitism – one species benefits at a cost to the other

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21
Q

what are the major marine lifestyles

A

Benthic organisms / Benthos =
- Live on the bottom or buried.
- Often sessile – attached to one place

Pelagic organisms =
- live in the water column

Planktonic =
- drift at the mercy of currents
- Phytoplankton & zooplankton

Nekton = can swim against the current (but can be benthic!)

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22
Q

Water exists naturally on Earth in which states?

A

gas
solid
liquid

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23
Q

waters high heat capacity means that…

A

The global ocean stores a huge amount of heat.

The global ocean is able to redistribute heat from the sun around the planet.

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24
Q

Water is particularly good at dissolving at which molecules

A

polar molecules

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25
Q

Chloride ions in the ocean are produced by?

A

volcanos

Hydrothermal vents

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26
Q

The main controller of the density of seawater is

A

temperature

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27
Q

Which colour (wavelength) of light penetrates the farthest into water?

A

blue

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28
Q

what affects water transparency

A

Strongly affected by suspended and dissolved material

Can be greatly affected by plankton

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29
Q

how much carbon is stored in the oceans compared to the atmosphere

A

CO2 is > 80 % of dissolved gas in the ocean

Ocean stores >50 times more CO2 than the atmosphere

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30
Q

the Coriolis effect deviates winds to the…

A

right in the northern hemisphere

left in the southern hemisphere

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31
Q

what type of pressures do warm and cold air produce

A

warm air causes low-pressure

cold air causes high pressure

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32
Q

Ekman transport means the net water movement is

A

90 degrees to the wind direction

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33
Q

what are gyres

A

Wind-driven surface currents combine into huge, more or less circular systems

Ocean currents thus act like a giant thermostat, warming the poles, cooling the tropics, and regulating the climate of our planet

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34
Q

what are thermoclines

A

Permanent (main) thermocline: a transition zone between warm surface water and cold water below.

seasonal thermoclines form in temperate and polar latitudes in the spring and summer.

Thermohaline circulation After water masses leave the surface they sink to a depth determined by their density.
Water of intermediate density descends only part way.

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35
Q

Safety rules in the intertidal areas

A

Always know the tide times

Follow a dropping tide, return when it turns

The tide can come in very rapidly in big, shallow bays

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36
Q

what are estuaries

A

Estuaries are areas where freshwater inputs meet the sea

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37
Q

important estuarine & soft sediment ecosystems

A

Halocline – salinity gradient

Isohaline – line of uniform salinity

Turbidity maximum – an area of mixing where particles can be carried up and downstream repeatedly
(turbidity is how clear the water is, and how much sediments are in the water)

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38
Q

what are positive estuary and negative estuary

A

positive - Most estuaries where freshwater input exceeds evaporation & dominates over seawater

negative - Low precipitation, High evaporation, Elevated salinity (can exceed 50 psu on average in some Texas Coast Bar-built estuaries)

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39
Q

how are salinity affected in estuaries

A

Salinity affected by: shape of estuary, seabed morphology, wind, evaporation, freshwater discharge, tidal currents

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40
Q

what happens to the solutes?

A
  • Primary production: removes dissolved inorganic carbon, nutrients (P, N, Si) and some trace metals and also forms particles
  • Adsorption & desorption: removes and adds solutes e.g. Na+ displaces Ca2+
  • Coagulation: forms particles that settle e.g. FeOx, Fe(OH)3 (flocculation)
  • Settling: large particles can scavenge adsorbed species from the water column as they sink
  • Sediment reactions & exchange: solid forms may be unstable in sediment redox conditions
    (e.g. organic matter, MnO2)
  • pore water composition different to water column
  • exchanges by diffusion, irrigation, resuspension
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41
Q

what is Osmoregulation

A

Osmoregulation is the process of maintaining salt and water balance (osmotic balance) across membranes within the body

  • Osmoconformers – allow their body fluid to change with salinity
  • Osmoregulators – keep salt concentration constant by regulating the concentration of solutes in their body
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42
Q

what are the two main groups of animals in estuaries

A

Epifauna – live on the sediment surface

Infauna – burrow in the sediment for protection

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43
Q

what are the threats to estuaries

A
  • Development
  • Sewage and runoff
  • Litter
  • Climate change- erosion
  • Over-harvesting
  • Invasive species
  • Migration Barriers
  • Noise & Light Pollution
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44
Q

types of feeding in sedimentary communities

A

suspension feeding - Feeding on particulate organic matter present in the water

filter feeding - Suspension feeding in which water is actively pumped or filtering structures are swept through the water

passive suspension feeding - no active pumping of water, but use of cilia and mucus to move particles to the mouth

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45
Q

where are shallow seas are primarily located

A

continental shelf

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46
Q

what are epi and endo benthic organisms

A

epibenthic organisms are bottom feeders that LIVE ON TOP of the sea floor

endobenthic organisms are bottom feeders that LIVE IN the sea floor

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47
Q

What proportion of global fisheries occur on the continental shelf?

A

90%

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48
Q

Are Soft-sediment shallow sea habitats are homogenous and stable?

A

FALSE

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49
Q

DO Laminaria kelp can have fronds up to 3 metres long and produce over 5kg C/m2/year

A

FALSE

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50
Q

TRUE OR FALSE Productivity in shallow seas primarly occurs in the meiobenthos

A

FALSE

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51
Q

aspect of Oligotrophic waters

A

they are nutrient poor

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52
Q

what do DOM, POM, DOC, POC and DIN stand for

A

DOM = dissolved organic matter

POM = particulate organic matter

DOC = carbon component

POC = particulate organic carbon

DIN = dissolved inorganic nitrogen

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53
Q

percentage of SOFT BOTTOM SUBLITTORAL COMMUNITIESin continental shelves

A

(~45% of temperate area, 30% of tropical)

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54
Q

what is the distribution of coral reefs from the equator

A

Distributed within 30 degrees latitude of the equator

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55
Q

are there any coral species in common between the Atlantic and the Indo-Pacific

A

False

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56
Q

what are corals, and their needed habitat

A

Hermatypic scleractinian corals (phylum Cnidaria)
Surface is living tissue on a calcium carbonate skeleton

Rarely grow deeper than ~ 50 m
Upper limit of temperature varies (can by above 35C in
the Persian Gulf)
Have a larval stage as a planula in the zooplankton

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57
Q

what are the coral reefs

A

Fringing = most common, susceptible to terrestrial influences

barrier reef = unclear between fringing, have large disparities between back reef and fore reef

Atoll = Found far from land, rising up from depths of 1000s of meters, ring of reef, islands and sand cays, Most in the Indo-West Pacific (rare in Atlantic), Clear waters and low nutrients

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58
Q

what are the type of herbivory on coral reefs

A

BROWSERS = Key for reef resilience, Actually eat large fleshy macroalgae & associated epiphytic material, e.i. unicorn fish

GRAZERS = Intensely graze epilithic algal turfs, Can limit the establishment & growth of macroalgae, i.e. parrot fish

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59
Q

what are mangroves

A

Dicotyledonous woody shrubs (54 true species exclusively in mangrove habitats)

Confined to tropics

Form dense forests – monospecific patches

Can dominate intertidal muddy shores (need soft sediments to get established)

60
Q

what is the pelagic zone and which ocean fits into it

A

the pelagic zone is ecological realm that includes the entire ocean water column. Of all the inhabited Earth environments, the pelagic zone has the largest volume,

it is the open ocean

61
Q

what are the areas in the pelagic zone

A

Epipelagic zone = surface - 200m, warmest, best lit

mesopelagic zone = only 1% of the light reaches this zone, marked by a thermocline, depth varies with seasons

bathypelagic = no light, constant temperature of 4 degrees

abyssopelagic = 4000 - 6000m, Mean water depth of oceans is 3,682m deep, 40 percent of the global surface, much of the life is there is benthic, fuelled by marine snow

hadopelagic = >6000m, same as abyssopelagic

62
Q

if the pelagic zone is the open ocean what are the two “provinces” that separate the shallow ocean and deep ocean

A
  • Neritic – near shore
  • Oceanic – beyond the continental shelf
63
Q

what are the two organisms groups of the pelagic zone

A

Plankton = - Unable to swim ‘significant’ distances
- Passively transported by ocean currents
- Planktonic plants = phytoplankton, φυτόν (phyton), meaning “plant“
- Planktonic animals = zooplankton, ζῴον (zoon), meaning “animal”

Nekton – free swimmers = Marine mammals, fish, invertebrates, reptiles AND birds

64
Q

what does DVM stand for and what is it?

A

Diel Vertical Migration (DVM)

Largest migration in terms of biomass on the planet.
Animals occur in deeper water during the day, Move to shallower water at night

65
Q

Are Polar landscapes seasonal

A

TRUE, very seasonal

66
Q

what is the degree tilt of the earth

A

23 degrees

67
Q

list some of the factors of the artic ocean

A

Small & Shallow
- 15.8 million square km (< 10% of the pacific)
- Average depth ~1200m (pacific~4000m)

Surround by land
- Limited links with Atlantic & Pacific
- Wide and gentle continental shelf
- River runoff contributes nutrients (and pollution)

68
Q

what is the mean temperature of the artic sea

A

-1.8 degrees

69
Q

what percentage of loss of sea ice is experienced every decade since 1979

A

2.9%

70
Q

what is the size of THE ANTARCTIC (SOUTHERN) OCEAN

A

LARGER AND DEEPER
- 20.3 million square km (< 13% of the Pacific)
- Average depth ~ 3200 m (Pacific ~ 4000m)

SURROUNDS A CONTINENT
- Defined as below the 60°S parallel or the ‘Antarctic Convergence’
- Extension of Atlantic, Indian & Pacific Oceans
- Steep and narrow continental shelf
- No river run-off

71
Q

what is the ice loss of the antarctic plate between 1994 and 2018

A

Loss of ~4000 Gt of ice between 1994 and 2018Loss of ~4000 Gt of ice between 1994 and 2018

72
Q

which direction does the Antarctic current flow in

A

Flows clockwise (as seen from south)
- Gives rise to Antarctic convergence
- Unimpeded flow
- Due to Eckman transport, upwelling of
cold nutrient rich water

73
Q

how do humans affect the carbon cycle

A

9 gigatonnes of carbon that humans are emitting (~35 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide) becomes an extra 4 gigatonnes in the atmosphere, an extra 3 gigatonnes of photosynthesis and an extra 2 gigatonnes in the ocean every year.

74
Q

what are the Terms and acronyms associated with biochemical cycle

A

POC (and or TC) – DOC Particulate Organic Carbon

PON – DON Particulate (Dissolved) Organic Nitrogen

POP (DOP) Particulate (Dissolved) Organic Phosphorus

DIP (Pi Phosphate) DIP: Dissolved In-organic Phosphorus

DCM (Deep Chlorophyll Maxima)

NPP and GPP (Net and Gross Primary Production

75
Q

what are the Top 6 major elements as ions in the sea (make 99% of dissolved salts)

A

Cl-, Na+, Mg 2+, SO4 2-, Ca 2+, K+

but these are not limiting nutrients

76
Q

what are the main carbon reservoirs on earth

A

atmosphere = 720 Gt
oceans = 38,400 Gt
terrestrial biosphere (total) - mainly forests = 2,000 Gt

Gt = 10^12kg

77
Q

what percent of CO2 from human activity is released into the atmosphere winds in the oceans, rivers and lakes

A

30-40%

78
Q

Sea urchin larvae can be classified as what?

A

Meroplankton

79
Q

Mixotrophy can be defined as where an organism….

A

uses both autotrophic and heterotrophic modes

80
Q

Mesozooplankton graze mainly on…..

A

microplankton

81
Q

In temperate regions of the oceans….

A

there is a relatively large net export production

82
Q

what are the trophic groups

A
  • Autotrophy = ‘self nourishment’ (e.g. photosynthetic)
    • Heterotrophy = ‘other nourishment’ (organic matter, other plants or animals)
    • Mixotrophy = ‘mixed nourishment’ (both of the above)
    • Holoplankton = ‘entire drifter’ (entire life-cycle spent floating e.g. phytoplankton, krill, copepods, formanifera)
      Meroplankton = ‘partial drifter’ (part of life-cycle spent floating e.g., larval stage of sea urchin, lobsters etc. is floating)
83
Q

what are the Zooplankton groups

A
  • Foraminifera &Radiolarians
    In phylum Retaria part of supergroup Rhizaria
    • Dinoflagellates & Ciliates are in Alveolata
    • Cnidarians, crustaceans, molluscs (inverterbrates) and chordates are all animals (metazoans)
84
Q

why are Copepods important in biogeochemical cycles

A
  • Copepods graze on Phytoplankton and microzooplankton
    • What about bacteria? (some eat organic detritus and the bacteria growing on it)
    • Copepods are important for the conversion of PON to DON
    • Faecal pellets sink through Euphotic zone
      Pellets circulate here and some sink to deep ocean
85
Q

what are the conditions of subtropical regions and temperate regions

A

Subtropical regions = less nutrient due to weather conditions, small phytoplankton due to being grazed heavily by microplankton, fast nutrient turnover with low net export

temperate regions = more nutrient resuspension so rapid supply leads to large phytoplankton, these are predated by large zooplankton, greater sinking due to larger sizes, faecal pellets and aggregates

86
Q

what is stratification

A

is the natural separation of an ocean’s water into horizontal layers by density, which is generally stable because warm water floats on top of cold water, and heating is mostly from the sun, which reinforces that arrangement.

87
Q

what does stratification cause within oceans

A

prevents nutrient exchange

caused by high gradients in tem, salinity and density

increased by surface tem, glacial meltwater

decreased by winds (mixing)

88
Q

A cyanobacteria is best described as

A

a gram negative photosynthesising oxygen releasing bacteria

89
Q

do Cyanobacteria have a thin or thick peptidoglycan layer

A

thin

90
Q

What type of cyanobacterial cell is involved in survival under unfavourable conditions?

A

akinete

91
Q

Which of the following is not a cyanobacteria? Synechocystis, Trichodesmium, Synechococcus, Phaeodactylum

A

Phaeodactylum

92
Q

Which of these marine reptiles do not need to return to land to lay eggs?
sea snakes
Marine iguanas
Sea turtles
Saltwater crocodiles

A

sea snakes

93
Q

Which of these marine animals are endotherms?
Saltwater crocodiles.
albatrosses.
Sea snakes.
Green turtles.
Penguins.
Marine iguanas.
Leatherback turtles
Puffins.

A

albatrosses
Penguins
Leatherback turtles
Puffins

94
Q

Which species of turtles often nest outside of spring/summer?

A

Leatherback turtle

95
Q

Higher temperatures cause sea turtles to

A

produce more female offspring

96
Q

TRUE or FALSE, All the eggs in a single clutch laid by a sea turtle will have been fertilised by the same male?

A

FALSE

97
Q

what are the three biosphere life zone

A

Open sea, shore and land

98
Q

what are the advantages of brown algae: kelp forests

A
  • Offshore, beyond the wave zone, brown kelps form forests
  • Provide shelter for a diversity of fish and invertebrate animals
  • Large carnivores find food and refuge here
  • Including tuna and sea otters e.g. in California
  • Humans harvest these kelps for food and industrial products
99
Q

what are dinoflagellate

A

a single-celled organism with two flagella, occurring in large numbers in marine plankton and also found in fresh water. Some produce toxins that can accumulate in shellfish, resulting in poisoning when eaten.

100
Q

why are dinoflagellate important?

A

important as symbionts in many kinds of organisms

AND symbiotic dinoflagellate Zooxanthellae is responsible for photosynthetic productivity that allows coral to grow in poor nutrient areas

101
Q

describe the dinoflagellate resting cysts

A

produced under unfavourable conditions

resting cysts that drift to the lake or bottom of the ocean and remain viable for years

until conditions become favourable will germinate, which will revive all the dormant populations

102
Q

what are dinoflagellate toxic componds

A

20% of species produce >1 highly toxic compounds

pfiesteria piscicida uses its deadly compound

toxic substance that paralyses the fish respiratory system

103
Q

general macroalgae structure

A

Blade

Gas Bladder - helps seaweed frond float to photosynthesis during high tide

frond - the general skin, waxy and leathery to help protect and reduce damage

stipe - Thick and flexible to avoid snapping in tides and waves

holdfast - helps hold it to the rocks

104
Q

why are macroalgae is important

A
  • Role at the land-sea margin vital as home and nursery grounds for many animals
    • Important for biodiversity
    • Also of value in global carbon budget
    • Bioindicators of chemical (nutrient input)
      Some species are free floating e.g. Sargassum
105
Q

what are the factors affecting zonation

A
  • Characteristic of rocky shores
    • At higher exposure the zonation spreads over a greater height relative to tide range
    • Some reds are parasitic (Polysiphonia on Ascophyllum)
    • Ability to survive desiccation
    • Survival of osmotic shock from extremes of salinity
    • Abrasion resistance (sand, stone)
    • Flexibility and strength against wave action
105
Q

What is the difference between a circular economy and a linear economy

A

A circular - Manufacturing to retailing to consumption and use to recycling repeat

linear economy - (resources) take to MAKE to (waste) DISPOSE

106
Q

list ways that algae biomass can be used to achieve more of an circular economy

A

Algal biomass -> slow release fertilizer

algal biomass -> animal & fish feeds (high-quality protein, omega-3 FA, carotenoids)

algae in feeds can stop cattle emission of methane

107
Q

Algal biotechnology advantages

A

Advantages
Potentially highly productive - require just CO2 and nutrients for maximizing productivity (autotrophic)
So, can remediate wastes and flue gases
Can also grow heterotrophically on cheap feedstocks (glycerol & waste sugars) – more productive than autotrophy
Produce valuable products (omega-3 fatty acids; antioxidant carotenoids; pigments and dyes)
Good for heterologous protein expression (e.g., anti-cancer antibodies)

108
Q

Algal biotechnology limitations

A

Disadvantages
Photosynthetic light conversion efficiency to biomass (~5%)
10X too expensive for large-scale biofuel production (to replace petroleum)
3X too expensive for high value products (e.g. Astaxanthin) production – answer, more research
Harvesting of microalgae can expensive – economies of scale

109
Q

what is the scientific term for a flowering plant

A

angiosperm

110
Q

what is the sea grass classification

A

Class: Monocotyledons
Order: Alismatales

111
Q

what are the requirements for sea grass

A
  • Light (5-20 SI%)
    Higher minimum light requirement than algae
    • Nutrients
      In tropical regions, too many nutrients = low light, nutrients causes an excess of algae growth
    • Shelter
      Need shelter bays
    • CO2
    • Oxic mud or sand (oxygen within the sediment)
    • Saline water (0-56ppt)
      0-56ppt growth, 0-99ppt tolerance
    • Suitable Temperature (0-30c)
      Higher temperature means higher rates of respiration which can be lethal to plants where there is not much light.
112
Q

how much sea grass do dugongs eat per day

A

40 kg

113
Q

how much sea grass do turtles eat per day

A

2kg

114
Q

what are the threats to seagrass

A

Global decline of seagrasses
* Approximately 58% of seagrass meadows globally have lost part of their distribution.

threats:
agricultural run-off - extra sediment less photosynthesis

temperature increase

urban infrastructure - direct destruction

urban & industrial run off

cooling waters from power stations

sea level rise

boating

aquaculture

dredging

115
Q

what do Gelatinous zooplankton inculde

A

siphonophores
scyphozoans
ctenophores
pyrosomes
salps

116
Q

diel vertical migration when do the fish descend and ascend

A
  • Animals occur in deeper water during the day (Deep Scattering Layer, DSL).
    • Move to shallower water at night.
117
Q

what stages do larvae go through

A

Photopositive – near surface;
Photonegative – close to bottom.

118
Q

Meroplanktonic animals: do what?

A

have a planktonic larval phase but a nektonic or benthic adult.

119
Q

what are krill

A

euphausiids

120
Q

benthic or pelagic
1. cuttlefish are…
2. Nautilus are…
3. Octopus are…
4. Squid are…

A
  1. Benthic
  2. Pelagic
  3. Benthic
  4. Pelagic
121
Q

Passive filter feeders tend to be found in …. and Active filter feeders tend to be found in

A

hard bottom communities.

sediment.

122
Q

Isopods are….. and Amphipods are……

A

dorso-ventrally compressed

laterally compressed

123
Q

The largest and most diverse order within the malacostracans is:

A

Decapoda

124
Q

The specialised feeding mechanism in regular echinoids is called the

A

Aristotle’s lantern

125
Q

Deposit feeders are also often

A

scavengers

126
Q

what are the irregular echinoids

A

sand dollars

Heart urchins

127
Q

are cephalopods herbivorous or carnivorous

A

they are ALL carnivorous

128
Q

do Elasmobranchs have gill slits or opercula

A

gill slits

129
Q

do Bony fish have gill slits or opercula

A

opercula

130
Q

do Sharks have heterocercal tails or homocercal tails

A

heterocercal tails

131
Q

do Bony fish have heterocercal tails or homocercal tails

A

homocercal tails

132
Q

what are Ampullae of Lorenzini

A

they are electroreceptors found in elasmobranchs and a few teleosts

133
Q

How many sharks are estimated to be killed annually for the shark fin trade?

A

100 million

134
Q

TRUE OR FALSE Elasmobranchs all show mating with internal fertilisation

A

TRUE

135
Q

what are key points about Dynamic lift, and static lift

A

dynamic lift - more economical at high speed, actively seeking out prey

Static Lift - more economical at low, speed, opportunistic prey encounter

136
Q

TRUE or FALSE do Osteichthyes have swim bladder

A

true

137
Q

what 96% of all living fish are

A

teleosts

138
Q

Why is a swim bladder so evolutionarily advantageous?

A

It opens up new niches

It provides a much lower cost of transport

139
Q

he upper jaw bones in teleosts are called..

A

premaxillae and maxillae

140
Q

Most teleosts are..

A

broadcast spawners

141
Q

Alaska pollock, Gadus chalcogramma, the most caught fish in 2016, is a

A

gadiform

142
Q

what marine mammal is classed as Pinnipedia

A

sea lions
seals
walrus

143
Q

what marine mammal is classed as Carnivora

A

sea otter, marine otter and polar bear

144
Q

what marine mammal is classed as Sirenia

A

Manatees

Dugong

145
Q

what marine mammal is classed as Cetacea

A

whales
dolphins
porpoises

146
Q

what are the solutions to human and ocean involvement sustainability

A

Selective fishing via regulations, gear improvements,
eco-labels
* Regulations, gear improvements, MPAs
* Fish conservatively of MSY, avoid some largest
individuals / spawning sites, MPAs
* MPAs, fishing below MSY for population rebuilding
* International treatise & enforcement
* Effective feed research and sustainably sourced
ingredients
* Organic methods & mutualisms
* Away from migration routes (salmon) or high value
ecosystems (mangrove forests)
* Mutualisms
- rem
- Mobilises sedimen

semester 2 flash cards (3 decks)

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