Bio Final Flashcards
1
Q
How to estimate size
A
Actual size= diameter of FOV/ # of times the object fits across
2
Q
All living organisms are made of cells and all living cells share 4 basic structural feature
A
Plasma membrane
Cytoplasm
DNA
Ribosomes
3
Q
Prokaryotic organisms examples
A
Bacteria
Archaea
4
Q
Prokaryotic has
A
-often unicellular (some genera may form chains called filaments)
- no membrane bound nucleus
- instead have a central area called nucleoid which contains the DNA
- no organelles
-most bacterial cells have cell walls composed of polysaccharides and amino acids
5
Q
Eukaryotic organisms
A
- can be unicellular (protists) or multicellular (fungi plants and animals)
- usually larger than prokaryotes
-have a membrane bound nucleus
-have membrane bound organelles
6
Q
How to determine pollution
A
Organisms differ in tolerance to organic pollution. If it has index of 5 it is very tolerant to pollution. If it’s lower it’s not tolerant
See what u find and go based on pollution index.
Number of each genus/ total
Then multiply by the pollution index
Add together for all samples
7
Q
A
8
Q
Types of light microscopy
A
Fluorescence
Confocal laser scanning
9
Q
Fluorescence microscopy
A
Fluorescent molecules absorb one particular wavelength of light and emit some of that absorbed light at another wavelength
Some fluorescence is natural but dyes are available commercially
10
Q
Confocal laser scanning microscopy
A
Subtype of fluorescence microscopy
Focus a laser light source onto a very thin plane
Fluorescence is admitted and scanned by a computer to make an image.
Used when specimens are too thick to be examined with fluorescence microscopy and can even make 3D images
11
Q
Types of electron microscopy
A
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
12
Q
What is resolution
A
Ability to distinguish between objects very close together
Think of it like zooming on a camera. U can zoom but the picture is blurry if the resolution is bad
13
Q
TEM
A
Transmission electron microscopy
Beam is transmitted through an extremely thin section of a specimen
TEM has best resolution
14
Q
Electron microscopy vs light
A
Electron is better resolution and black and white
15
Q
SEM
A
Beam of electrons
Makes a 3D image of the surface of a specimen.
Can be used for intact specimens like insects. And pollen grains
16
Q
Cell wall function
A
Protects and supports the cell
17
Q
Plasma membrane function
A
Pressed tightly against the cell wall
Cannot be distinguished from it with compound microscope
Regulates passage of substances in and out of the cell
Selectively permeable
18
Q
Plastids
A
One of the distinguishing features of plant cells is the presence of membrane bound organelles called plastids
3 types
Chloroplasts
Chromoplasts
Leucoplasts
19
Q
Allele
A
Alternative version of a gene (either dominant or recessive)
20
Q
Alternation of generations
A
A life cycle with distinct multicellular haploid and diploid stages found in some plants (ex. Ferns)
21
Q
Antheridium (plural- antheridia)
A
Male reproductive organ on the fern gametophyte in which the flagellated sperm cells are formed
22
Q
Anthocyanin
A
Purple. Blue. And red water soluble pigments that are stored in the central vacuole of some plant cells
23
Q
Achegonium (plural-archegonia)
A
Female reproductive organ on the fern gametophyte in which the egg cell is formed
24
Q
Autosomal
A
Refers to genes that are located on autosomes (not sex linked)
25
Autosomes
Non sex chromosomes (in humans there are 22 pairs)
26
Binary fission
A means of sexual reproduction in prokaryotes in which a cell divides to form 2 identical organisms
27
Biotechnology
The use of living organisms or their components (such as DNA or protein) to make. Modify. Or process products for human benefit
28
Bivalent (see tetrad)
A pair of homologous chromosomes
29
Capsule
A type of protective outer covering (glycocalyx) composed of polysaccharides found outside of the cell wall on many bacterial cells; protects bacteria from adverse conditions, digestion, dehydration
30
Carotenoid
Yellow. Orange. And red pigments that are produced by chromoplasts in some plant cells
31
Carrier
An individual who has a recessive allele but doesn’t express the recessive trait
32
Cell cycle
Regular cycle of events that a cell undergoes during growth and division. Comprised of interphase (G1,S,G2) and cell division (mitosis and cytokinesis)
33
Cell membrane (plasma membrane)
Selectively permeable membrane that separates a cells contents from the surrounding environment and regulates passage of substances into and out of the cell
34
Cell plate
A new cell wall that forms between daughter nuclei during cytokinesis in plant cells to separate the cytoplasm
35
Cell wall
A relatively rigid layer found immediately outside the plasma membrane;
In bacteria. Archaea. Plants. Fungi. And some protists.
Provides support and protection for the cell
36
Cellular respiration
Prices that generate energy rich molecules called adenosine tri phosphate. ATP. From sugars
37
Central vacuole
Membrane bound organelle in plant cells that functions in
Storage of water. Proteins. Pigments. And toxins
Provides super to plant cell through turgor pressure
38
Centromere
Region in a chromosome where 2 sister chromatids are tightly associated
Point of attachement of spindle microtubules during cell division
39
Chiasma (plural - chiasmata)
Site of crossing over between the non sister chromatids of 2 homologous chromosomes
40
Chlorophyll
Green pigments located on the thylakoid membranes within chloroplasts which capture light for photosynthesis
41
Chloroplast
A chlorophyll containing organelle where photosynthesis occurs. Found only in plants and algae (algal protists)
42
Chromatid
One of the 2 identical copies of DNA that make up a replicated chromosome. And are joined at the centromeres. Known as sister chromatids
43
Chromoplasts
Plastid that contains pigments (carotenoids) giving colouration to flowers and fruits. Making them attractive to animals for pollination and seed dispersal respectively
44
Chromosomes
A unit of a unit of genetic material composed of DNA and associated proteins found in the nuclei of eukaryotic cells and in the nucleoid region of prokaryotic cells
45
Cilium (plural cilia)
Short cellular appendages that facilitate locomotion (paramecium)
Or function to sweep fluid over the surface of the cell ( epithelial cells from your nasal passage where cilia sweep mucus and debris out of the respiratory tract)
Hair things
46
Cleavage furrow
During cytokinesis animals cells. When a ring of microfilaments contract around the middle of the cell. Pinching and tightening until daughter cells are separated
47
Colony
1- localized population of microorganisms derived from a single cell
2- group of cells or organisms of the same species that adhere to each other and may communicate with each other
48
Contractile vacuole
Membrane bound organelle involved in osmoregulation in animal line protists
49
Crossing over
Exchange of segments of the noon sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes when they are in tetrads during prophase 1 of meiosis
50
Cytokinesis
Division of the cytoplasm to form 2 separate daughter cells
51
Cytoplasm
Fluid region of the cell contained within the plasma membrane containing cytosol. Organelles. And cytoskeleton
Functions in creating an environment for the processes that take place in a cell
52
Cytoplasmic bridge
Connection between adjacent cells of a colony that allows communication between cells
53
Cytoplasmic streaming
Movement of cytoplasm in a cell. Used to circulate cell contents to distribute food and removes waste
In large algal and plant cells
54
Cytoskeleton
Network of protein filaments in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cellcell
Includes microtubules. Intermediate filaments and microfilaments
55
Daughter organism
Spheres found within the Volvox which are the result of asexual reproduction through multicellular division and reproduction of cells
56
deoxyribnucleoside triphosphate
dNTP
Building blocks used to produce the copies of DNA during polymerase chain reaction PCR
57
Diffusion
Random movement of molecules of a substance from an area of high concentration to low concentration of that substance
58
Dihybrid cross
Experimental mating between 2 individuals that differ with respects to 2 characteristics ( ex. plant height and seed colour)
59
Diploid
Cell or organism that has 2 sets of chromosomes (ie. pairs of homologous chromosomes 2n)
60
DNA
depxyribonucleic acid
Genetic material of an organism. A double stranded. Helical nucleic acid
61
DNA denaturation
Separation of the 2 strands of the DNA double helix. Occurs during polymerase chain reaction PCR
62
DNA extraction
Performed by chemical lysis of nucleated cells to liberate DNA which is then precipitated out of solution
63
DNA fingerprint
Unique pattern of migration of restriction fragments after gel electrophoresis
64
DNA polymerase
An enzyme that assembles DNA nucleotides into polynucleotides using a pre existing strand of DNA as a template
65
DNA Syntheis
During the cell cycle. In the S stage. Each single chromosome produces an exact copy of itself by DNA synthesis to preproduce replicated chromosomes
66
Dominant
An allele that is expressed in both homo and heterozygous conditions
67
Duplicated chromosome (see replicated chromosome)
Chromosome that has 2 cell identical sister chromatids. Resulting from DNA replication in the S stage of the cycle
68
Egg (ovum/ plural ova)
The non motile gamete produced by female reproductive organs (archegonia in plants. Ovaries in animals)
69
Embryo
The multicellular stage of a developing organism. Following mitotic divisions of a zygote
70
Eukaryotic
Cell or organism that contains membrane bound organelles and a true nucleus
71
Eyespot
Light sensitive organelle that orients certain organisms. (Ex. Volvocine algae) towards light
72
Fertilization
Fusion of haploid gametes (sperm and egg) resulting in a diploid zygote
73
Flagellum (plural flagella)
Long cellular appendage specialized for locomotion in some cells (ex. Volvocine algae. Sperm cells)
74
Food vacuole
Vacuole present in animal-like protists and some cells of multicellular animals. Contains food engulfed by the cell
75
Frequency
Proportions of one type of individual (genotype or phenotype) to the total population
76
G1
First gap phase of the cell cycle when new organelles and proteins are produced and plasma membrane increases in size
77
G2
Second gap phase of the cell cycle
78
Gamete
A haploid reproductive cell which combines with another gamete during sexual reproduction (eggs and sperm are gametes)
79
Gametophyte
Multicellular haploid generation in the life cycle of a plant that produces gametes (egg and sperm) by mitosis
80
Gel electrophoresis
Technique for separating macromolecules ( eg. fragments of DNA) using an electric current and a porous matrix based on speed of migration of the molecules which is mainly influenced by their size
81
Gelatinous matrix
An extracellular matrix of glycoproteins excreted by some algae to hold individual cells together
82
Gene
A unit of hereditary information that contributes to the inherited characteristics or traits of an organism
composed of a specific organized sequence of DNA
83
Gene linkage
Genes that are located close together (less than 50 map units apart) on the same chromosome and are inherited together
84
Genetically modified organism GMO
An organism with genetic material that has been altered through any artificial process
85
Geneotype
Genetic makeup of an organism (ex. Aa or AaBB)
86
Glycocalyx
Outer covering secreted outside the cell wall by some bacteria
Protects cell from adverse conditions (ex. Traps water and protects the cell from desiccation)
87
Golgi apparatus
Organelle made up of flattened. Membrane bound compartments that modify. Store. And ship products of the endoplasmic reticulum
88
Guard cell
In pants a pair of bean shaped cells that regulate the opening and closing of the stomata
89
Haploid
A cell or organism which only has one set of chromosomes (n)
90
Heterozygous
Individual with 2 different alleles for the same gene (Aa or Bb)
91
Homologous chromosomes
Chromosomes that have the same size. Shape. Centromere position and linear sequence of genes
Pair up during prophase 1 to form tetrads
92
Homozygous
Individual with 2 identical alleles for the same gene (AA or aa)
93
Hypertonic
When comparing 2 solutions the hypertonic solution has the higher solute concentration
94
Hypotonic
When comparing two solutions. The hypotonic solution has the lower solute concentration
95
Independent assortment
See Mendelssohn second law
96
Interkinesis
A short interphase-like stage between meiosis 1 and 2 during which cells can grow but dna isn’t replicated
97
Isotonic
When 2 solutions have the same solute concentration
98
Karyotype
Photographic representation of the chromosome of an actively dividing cell. Showing the number shape and size of the chromosomes
99
Ladder
A sample of DNA with fragments of known size used as a reference to estimate the size of other fragments when used in gel electrophoresis
100
Leucoplast
Type of plastid that lacks pigment
Different kinds of leucoplasts produce and store different macromolecules (starch protein fat)
101
Locus (plural loci)
Location of a gene on a chromosome
Identified by a labelled line in a chromosome diagram
102
Lysosomes
Small membrane bound organelle that contains hydrolytic enzymes that digests cells food and wastes
103
Meiosis 1
First division of meiosis when homologous chromosomes are separated into 2 different cells
Halves the number of chromosomes (haploid -> diploid)
104
Meiosis 2
Second division of meiosis when replicated chromosomes are separated into single chromosomes
105
Mandels first law
Alleles of 1 gene segregate from one another during the formation of gametes
106
Mendels second law
Alleles of different genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation
107
Microfilaments
Thin type of protein filament that forms part of the cytoskeleton
Important in cell shape. Strength. Movement
Responsible for pseudopodia formation in amoeba. Composed of the protein actin
108
Microtubules
Hollow protein filament that is part of cytoskeleton
Responsible for structure and movement of cilia and flagella. Cell organization and shape.
Composed of the protein tubulin
109
Mitochondrion (plural mitochondria)
Organelle that carries out cellular respiration and supplies most of the cells ATP
110
Mitosis
Division of a nucleus to produce 2 genetically identical daughter nuclei. Each with the same complement of chromosomes
111
Monohybrid cross
A cross between 2 individuals that differ in respect to 1 characteristic (ex. Plant height)
112
Multicellular organism
Many celles organism that has cells which are specialized for different functions
113
Normal distribution
A set of continuous data for which the mean is the most common value with a symmetrical decrease in the frequency for values above and below the mean forming a bell shaped curve
114
Nuclear envelope
Double membrane perforated with pores that surrounds the nucleus
115
Nucleoid region
Region of prokaryotic cells where genetic material is located
116
Nucleolus (nucleoli)
Prominent region in nucleus of nondividing cells where ribosome subunit assembly occurs
117
Nucleus (nuclei)
Membrane bound organelle containing most of the cells genetic material.
Controls cell function (by directing protein synthesis)
Sore of DNA synthesis and RNA transcription
118
Osmoregulation
Control of water and ion balance within a cell or organism (eg. amoeba)
119
Osmosis
Movement of a solvent (usually water) through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of low solute concentration to and area of high solute concentration
120
Ovary
In animals. The female reproductive organ which produces egg/ ova
121
