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biology exam 4 > bio exam 4 - Sheet1 > Flashcards

bio exam 4 - Sheet1 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Host range

A

number of species that can be infected

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2
Q

Host cell

A
  • The number/types of cells infected by a virus
  • A living cell that serves as a shelter and a food source to the foreign organism
  • example; what type of cell is this viruses host cell?
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3
Q

Capsid

A

protein coat; encloses the nucleic acid; composed of one or more protein subunits called CAPSOMERS

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4
Q

viral envolope

A

Encloses the capsid; lipid bilayer (derived from plasma membrane of the host cell); may have spike glycoproteins; not all have an envelope

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5
Q

genome

A

DNA versus RNA, single stranded (ss) versus double stranded (ds), linear versus circular; some have several copies; vary in size (6400 bp (TMV) vs thousands)

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6
Q

1 Virus process: attachment

A

phage binds to proteins in outer bacterial wall

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7
Q

2 Entry

A

some mechanism to inject nucleic acid into the cell (example-degrade a small part of the cell wall with lysozyme)

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8
Q

3 viral integration

A

DNA enters cell and can integrate with the host chromosome(doesn’t have to)

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9
Q

4 synthesis of viral components

A

phage DNA directs synthesis of cellular components, DNA circulates, host chromosome DNA is degraded.

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10
Q

5 viral assembly

A

Some viruses self-assemble

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11
Q

6 release

A

virus-derived protein dissolves cell wall, causes lysis, and allows virus to be released and infect new cells

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12
Q

why r viruses not alive

A

only have RNA, don’t maintain hemeostasis, does not need energy, not made of cells.

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13
Q

lysogenic cycle includes

A

integration, replication, and excision

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14
Q

lytic cycle

A

synthesis, assembly, and release

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15
Q

temperature phages have a

A

lysogenic cycle

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16
Q

virulent phages have a

A

lytic cycle

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17
Q

latency in human viruses (1)

A

Virus integrates into host genome and may remain dormant for longperiods of time

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18
Q

episomes (type of latency)

A
  • genetic elements that replicate independently of host DNA (can be in nucleus,nerve cell)
  • An episome is a special type of plasmid, which remains as a part of the eukaryotic genome without integration.
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19
Q

viroids

A

RNA that affect plants,Some replicate in host cell nucleus, others in chloroplast

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20
Q

RNA genome does not code for

A

proteins

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21
Q

Prions

A

proteins that affect animals

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22
Q

Prions induce

A

abnormal protein folding

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23
Q

Genetic properites of bacteria

A

single type of circulur chromosome,may have more then one copy of chromosome

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24
Q

Nucleid

A

region where tightly packed bacterial chromosome found

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25
Q

proteins important

A

for loops and supercoiling the DNA

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26
Q

vertical gene transfer

A

genes are passed from one generation to the next among individuals of the same species

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27
Q

horizontal gene transfer

A

when genes are passed to non-offspring, possibly of different species

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28
Q

17% of genes havbe been acquired from

A

horizontal transfer

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29
Q

antiboitic resistence from

A

horizontal transfer

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30
Q

bacterial strain

A

A lineage that has genetic differences from another lineage(same species, but with different genetics)

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31
Q

conjugation(gene transfer)

A

Plasmid transferred from the donor to the recipient through “appendage”; both cells now have the plasmid; could be to same or different species of bacteria

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32
Q

transformation(gene transfer)

A

DNA fragment from a dead, degraded bacterium enters a competent recipient bacterium and is exchanged for a piece of DNA of the recipient.

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33
Q

transduction

A

Bacteriophage infects donor and “picks up” some donor DNA. Then phage infects new cell and transfers the DNA to recipient

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34
Q

Bacterial transformation does not require

A

direct contact between cells

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35
Q

Only competent cells with competence factors are capable of

A

transformation

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36
Q

Recombinant DNA technology

A

Use of laboratory techniques to bring together fragments of DNA from multiple sources

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37
Q

genomics

A

is the molecular analysis of the entire genome of a species

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38
Q

DNA cloning, why useful

A

makes lots of DNA, allows to study, large amount of DNA product

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39
Q

3 steps to gene cloning

A
  1. isolate DNA,
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40
Q

resistance plasmoids

A

defend against poisons/toxins (like antibiotics)

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41
Q

degradative plasmoids

A

help remove unusual substances/pollutants

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42
Q

virulence plasmoids

A

carries genes for pathogenesis

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43
Q

fertility plasmoids

A

promote gene transfer

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44
Q

Only competent cells with competence factors

A

are capable of transformation

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45
Q

common vectors

A
  • Plasmids, Have special sequences to make cloning easier*,
  • Carry a selectable marker (like antibiotic resistance gene)*
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46
Q

plasmids

A

small, self-replicating, circular pieces of DNA found naturally in many strains of bacteria

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47
Q

viral vectors(step 1 in gene cloning)

A

viruses which infect living cells and propagate themselves using the host cell’s machinery

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48
Q

How can you get the DNA of interest?

A

PCR

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49
Q

polyamerase chain reaction (PCR)

A

-a method for amplifying DNA from a small amount so a sufficient amount is available for analysis

50
Q

How to do PCR

A

Mix all reagents/components in a tube., 2. Put in a PCR machine. Machine essentially doesall the work! 1. Repeated rounds of denature, anneal, andextend will amplify your DNA of interest.

51
Q

primers in PCR

A

designed to flank the exact region you want to amplify by complementation, comparison of DNA replication to PCR

52
Q

Step 1: Part 1 Denature(PCR)

A

temp is raised very high (usually around 95 °C - 98°C); this causes the 2 strands of the dsDNA to separate from each other.

53
Q

Step 1: Part 2 Anneal (PCR)

A

temp is dropped to a chosen temperature that will allow your designed primers to bind by complementation

54
Q

Step 1: part 3 extend (PCR)

A

temp is raised to the optimal temp for the polymerase to be used

55
Q

Step 2 insert DNA of interest into the vector(plasmid) (PCR)

A

Use commercially available restriction enzymes to cut the vector and DNA of interest, 1. The enzyme will make these pieces complementary/share an affinity for each other
Add a ligase (similar to the one we discussed during DNAreplication) that will combine these two pieces of DNA together to create 1 new piece
this makes the recombinant plasmid

56
Q

Step 2: part 2 After cutting the DNAs, combine them.(PCR)

A
  1. After restriction enzyme digests, the vector and DNA of interest share complementary sequences where the enzyme had cut.,
  2. Combine two pieces of DNA, they will associate with each other by complementation.
  3. add a ligase, will enzymatically permanently combine two pieces of DNA together to create 1 new vector (plasmid).
  4. end result is new plasmid that carries your DNA of interest= RECOMBINANT VECTOR or PLASMID
57
Q

Step 3 of PCR

A

transform a host strain to make copies of your DNA of interest (or translate the encoded protein)

58
Q

How do restriction enzymes work?

A
  • Made naturally by bacteria as protection against bacteriophages*,
  • Cut at specific known restriction sites in the DNA*
  • Most restriction sites are palindromic(complementery)
  • May produce sticky ends
59
Q

Restrction enzymes

A

can cut DNA at specific sequences

60
Q

When certain restriction enzymes cut,

A

they leave a tiny bit of an overhang; not a blunt cut; this can allow complementary base pairing between fragments

61
Q

Restriction enzyme leaves a short, complementary sequence between the two pieces so that

A

they will be able to bind each other; then ligase combines/joins the pieces

62
Q

to screen for your successful cloning you can -

A
  1. Isolate the plasmid DNA and do PCR on it
  2. Isolate the plasmid DNA, use restriction enzymes to cut out inserted DNA, then analyze on agar gel thru gel electrophoresis.
63
Q

Agarose gel electrophoresis

A
  • used to separate macromolecules on a gel, based on their charge, size/length, and mass
  • evaluate the results of a cloning experiment
64
Q

applications of genomics

A

mapping of genome –> Could involve sequencing the genome of organisms, functional genomics –>whole courses taught on this subject

65
Q

If a ddNTP is incorporated into a growing DNA strand, it ___

A

terminates the strand; no more nucleotides can be added because of the missing 3’ OH

66
Q

how does sequencing work?

A

it simultaneously identifies DNA bases(A,T,G,C) while incorporating them into a nucleic acid chain.

67
Q

expression analysis

A

which genes turn on or off in particular cells

68
Q

why is genomics important?

A
  • Bacteria cause disease*,
  • Can apply knowledge to more complex organisms*,
  • Origin of first eukaryotic cell involved union of archaeal and bacterial cell*,
  • Bacteria often used as tools in research,
69
Q

why r Archaeal and bacterial genomes less complex than eukaryote

A

Lack centromeres and telomeres

70
Q

Reasons to sequence eukaryotic genomes:

A
  • -Great benefit from identifying and characterizing genes in model organisms,
  • -More information to identify and treat human diseases,
  • -Improved strains of agricultural species,
  • -Way to establish evolutionary relationships
71
Q

evolution

A

heritable change in one or more characteristics of a population or species from one generation to the next

72
Q

microevolution

A

Change in allele frequencies in a population over generations.

73
Q

macroevolution

A

large-scale evolutionary changes that take place over long periods of time

74
Q

species

A

group of related organisms; capable of interbreeding

75
Q

theory of evolution, how did it come about?

A

relies on observation rather then life from a spiritual point of view, believe forms are changed over time

76
Q

darwins influence on evolution

A

Formulated theory of evolution by mid-1840s

77
Q

variation, within a given species

A

Traits heritable - passed from parent to offspring•, Genetic basis was not yet known

78
Q

natrual selection

A

individual with better traits flourish and reproduce• Competition for limited resources, More offspring produced than can survive•

79
Q

evidence of evolution: fossil record

A

Can see change in fossils when looking directly at oldest to youngest fossils

80
Q

transitional form

A

a species that is intermediate between two different species

81
Q

evidence of evolution:biogeography

A
  • The study of the geographic distribution of extinct and living species;
  • Example: islands may have unique species compared to mainland due to isolation
82
Q

endemic

A
  • native species, only found in one place
83
Q

convergant evolution

A

When 2 species from different lineages have independently evolved similar characteristics (because they occupy similar environments)

84
Q

homoligies

A

Fundamental similarity due to descent from a common ancestor

85
Q

anatomical(type of homology)

A

Example: homologous structures

86
Q

developmental(type of homology)

A

Example: embryonic structures

87
Q

molecular(type of homology)

A

Example: similarities in gene sequences

88
Q

vestigial structures

A

A structure that is present in an organism but no longer serves its original purpose

exe- earlobes, tailbone

89
Q

homologous structures

A
  • two genes, in different species, derived from the same ancestral gene;
  • similar but not identical
90
Q

paralogeous genes (single celled)

A

homologous genes within a single species; frequently arise due to duplication event

91
Q

gene pool

A

Combined genetic information of all the members of a particular population

92
Q

population

A

Group of individuals of the same species that occupy the same environment and can interbreed with one another

93
Q

microevolution

A

looks at changes in a population’s gene pool from generation to generation

94
Q

reproductive success

A

Likelihood of an individual contributing fertile offspring to the next generation

95
Q

reproductive success reason 1

A

Certain characteristics make organisms better adapted and more likely to survive to reproductive age

96
Q

reproductive success reason 2

A

ability to find a mate and ability to produce viable gametes and offspring

97
Q

fitness

A
  • likelihood that genotype will contribute to gene pool of next generation compared to other genotypes;
  • quantitative measure of reproductive success;
98
Q

directional selection

A

Individuals at one extreme of a phenotypic range have greater reproductive success in a particular environment

99
Q

stabilizing selection

A
  • Favors the survival of individuals with intermediate phenotypes(and against both of the extremes)
    Example involves clutch size of birds: Too many eggs and offspring - die due to lack of care and food,
    Too few eggs - does not contribute enough to next generation
100
Q

Diversifying/Disruptive selection

A

Favors the survival of two or more different genotypes that produce different phenotypes

101
Q

balancing selection

A

Two or more alleles are kept in balance, and therefore are maintained in a population over the course of many generations

102
Q

selective breeding

A

Procedures used to modify traits in domesticated animals/plants (aka: artificial selection)–traits chosen by breeders to make more desirable offspring (from human perspective)

103
Q

sexual selection

A

Directed at certain traits of sexually reproducing species that make it more likely forindividuals to find or choose a mate and/or engage in successful mating how members ofone sex choose who to mate with; reproductive success influenced by specific traits

104
Q

Sexual dimorphism

A

significant difference between the morphologies of the two sexes within a species (could be male or female is bigger than the other)

105
Q

Intrasexual selection

A

Males directly compete for mating opportunities or territories

106
Q

Intersexual selection 2

A

one chooses its mate from the other sex based on desirable characteristics

107
Q

Less common type of intersexual selection: Cryptic female choice

A

females can use chemical or physical mechanisms to control mating success

108
Q

genetic drift

A

changes allelic frequencies due to random chance (affects gene pool)

109
Q

Random events

A

are unrelated to fitness

110
Q

Genetic Drift rapidly alters allele frequencies when the population size

A

dramatically decreases

111
Q

bottleneck affect (genetic drift)

A

reduced population size rebuilds, Randomly eliminates members without regard togenotype

112
Q

founder effect (genetic drift)

A

small group starts a new colony,less genetic variation

113
Q

Gene flow

A

occurs when individuals migrate between populations having different allele frequencies (genes move between populations)

114
Q

Migration tends to

A

reduce differences in allele frequencies between the two populations

115
Q

nonrandom mating - Assortative mating

A
  • Individuals with similar phenotypes or genotypes are more likely to mate, Increases the proportion of homozygotes(similaroffspring)
    • Like breeds with like
116
Q

nonrandom mating - Disassortative mating

A

Dissimilar phenotypes mate preferentially, Favors heterozygosity(differentness in offspring)

117
Q

inbreeding

A

choice of mate based on genetic history

118
Q

integration lysogenic cycle

A

integration of the bacteriophage nucleic acid into the genome of the host bacterium

119
Q

replication lysogenic cycle

A

involves the virus assimilating its genome with the host cell’s genome to achieve replication without killing the host.

120
Q

excision lysogenic cycle

A
121
Q

lytic cycle

A

biology exam 4 (2 decks)

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