Bio exam Flashcards
What are Light-Dependent Reactions?
Location: In the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts.
Main Purpose: Convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH (used in the Calvin cycle).
Process Overview:
- Photons (light energy) excite electrons in chlorophyll molecules in Photosystem II.
- These excited electrons are passed through the electron transport chain (ETC).
- Water molecules are split (photolysis), releasing oxygen as a by-product.
- The excited electrons travel through the ETC, leading to the production of ATP via ATP synthase (this is called photophosphorylation).
- The electrons then reach Photosystem I, where they are re-excited by more light and ultimately used to produce NADPH.
Key Points to Remember:
- Photolysis: Splitting of water molecules to release oxygen, protons, and electrons.
- Photophosphorylation: The production of ATP using light energy through the electron transport chain and ATP synthase.
- Products: ATP and NADPH, which are then used in the Calvin cycle.
- Oxygen is released as a by-product.
What is the Calvin Cycle?
- Light-Independent Reactions
Location: In the stroma of the chloroplasts (fluid-filled space surrounding the thylakoid membranes).
Main Purpose: To fix carbon dioxide and convert it into glucose using the ATP and NADPH produced in the light-dependent reactions.
Process Overview:
1. Carbon Fixation: CO₂ is attached to a 5-carbon sugar, ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP), by the enzyme RuBisCO, forming an unstable 6-carbon compound that splits into two 3-carbon molecules.
2. Reduction: ATP and NADPH from the light reactions are used to convert the 3-carbon molecules into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P).
3. Regeneration of RuBP: Some G3P molecules are used to regenerate RuBP, allowing the cycle to continue.
4. Glucose Formation: The remaining G3P molecules are used to form glucose or other sugars.
Key Points to Remember: - The Calvin cycle does not directly require light but uses the ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent reactions.
- It fixes carbon dioxide into a 3-carbon compound (G3P), which can later be used to form glucose.
- RuBisCO is the key enzyme that catalyzes the fixation of CO₂.
- ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent reactions are crucial in this cycle to produce glucose.
What is substrate level phosphorylation?
During the metabolic processes for sugar, a phosphate group is removed from a substance molecule and combined with an ADP molecule to form ATP
Phosphorylation means the addition of a phosphate group
Shown an ‘P’ inside a circle
This recycles the hydrolyzed ADP from previous reactions, back into useable ATP
What is oxidative phosphorylation?
Build up from the pumping of H+ out is a electrochemical gradient, large amounts of positive charges create a chemical gradient
Large H+ concentration creates a chemical gradient
All the electrons from NADH and FADH2 are transferred through a chain of membrane proteins on the inner mitochondrial membrane
Two stages: electron transport chain and chemiosmosis
This helps to drive phosphorylation of ADP to ATP
Electron transport chain: the chain of enzymes and their cofactors in the membrane
The ETC gets more and more electronegative than the last component- this helps to make electrons go through the chain
The final electron acceptor, O2, is one of the most electronegative substances on earth
What is an enzyme?
- Enzymes are catalysts – these are chemicals that speed up a chemical reaction without being used up in the process
- Most biological processes involve the successful collision between reactant molecules in order for products to form
- To ensure the success of such collisions, enzymes need to become involved
- The molecule that the enzyme acts on is called the substrate molecule.
- Enzymes are very specific for the substance to which they bind
- The site where the enzyme binds to the substrate is called the active site
- The notch in the protein is compatible with the shape of the substrate, such they fit together
- When the two are attached, this creates the enzyme-substrate complex
- Some enzymes require the presence of certain substances before they can work properly – these behave like “switches” that turn an enzyme on and off.
- Enzymes can be inorganic (cofactors) or organic (coenzymes). Vitamins and minerals tend to be inorganic because they are human made. Calcium is also inorganic as calcium is added on. Calcium can be organic if body breaks it down from bones
- organic means it’s made in the body, while inorganic means it must be digested
- cofactors help enzymes
- Enzymes prepare substrates for reaction by changing the substrate, its environment, or both in some way
- Enzymes reduce the activation energy required for a reaction to begin.
- Less energy needed for reactions to occur
What is an inhibitor?
Molecules that bind to the allosteric or active site of an enzyme and causes a decrease in the activity of that enzyme
What is an allosteric site?
a site on an enzyme that is not the active site, where other molecules can interact with and regulate the activity of the enzyme
What is competitive inhibition?
interferes with the active site of the enzyme so substrate cannot bind
What is non-competitive inhibition?
changes the shape of the enzyme so it cannot bind to substrate.
What is an activator?
- Non competitive activation
- Molecules can also bind to an allosteric site
- It is a molecule that keeps an enzyme active or causes an increase in the activity of that enzyme
What are factors affecting enzyme activity?
- An enzyme is a protein.
- If it becomes denatured, it will not function to catalyze the reaction properly.
3 important factors affecting activity:
Temperature
- As temperatures increase, so does the vibrational energy of each atom
- This causes the intermolecular forces holding the protein together to break.
- The result is a denatured protein. In this case, an inefficient enzyme.
- Likewise if the temperature is too low
pH
- Some enzymes function best in acidic environments, others basic ones.
- Example: pepsin thrives in the stomach - pH =2
- Trypsin thrives in small intestines - pH =8
- As pH changes, the enzyme’s amino acid R-groups gain or lose protons (H+), which change their shape.
- this is due to differing intermolecular forces
Substrate Concentration
- If there are more molecules present in solution, there is a higher chance that one will interact with the enzyme
- At a certain point (x), there are not enough enzyme molecules to catalyze all of the substrate molecules.
- The enzyme becomes the limiting factor
What is Electrical Nature?
- Nerves conduct electrical impulses to carry the message
- By changing the concentration of Na+ and K+ inside and outside of the cell, electric current flows down an axon
What is a membrane potential?
- difference in charge separation across a cell membrane
- Potential energy
- Conduct due to axon structure
What is an action potential?
- a change in charge that occurs when gates of K+ channels close and Na+ open after depolarization (caused by a stimulus)
- A nerve impulse (signal) consists of a series of action potentials.
- Nerve cells are polarized because of a difference in charge across the membrane
- inside more negative than outside
Depolarization is when they are less polarized - Membrane potential is less than resting potential
- Inside of cell less negative than outside
When a membrane has a charge imbalance, it has potential energy
- charge imbalance, also called electric chemical gradient, makes potential energy. This energy can be used to allow a electric impulse to move through a neuron
What are the releasing hormones?
- GNRH- comes from hypothalamus
- after release, anterior pituitary gland releases: FSH and LH both in males and females
- In males, testes begin sperm production which releases testosterone
- In females, ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone
- The Menstrual Cycle: a 28 day long cycle*
- Hormones stimulate the development of the uterine wall and release of an egg from the ovary
- If the egg is not fertilized, the uterine lining is shed (along with the unfertilized egg)
What are trp Operons?
- negative feedback loop because it’s inhibited and is always on but off if needed
- Trp Operon in E. coli contains five genes that are involved in the synthesis of essential amino acid tryptophan.
- This operon is normally transcribed, until the cell has sufficient tryptophan. Once enough tryptophan is present for normal cell functioning, the extra tryptophan binds to the repressor protein allowing it to attach to the operator and inhibit transcription.
The trp operon is “OFF”
- Regulates genes for tryptophan (an amino acid) production in prokaryotes
- The trp operon is inhibited when high levels of tryptophan are present
- Tryptophan is a co-repressor because it binds with the trp repressor protein and activates this repressor protein (transcription proceeds)
- This complex will the deactivate (turn off) gene expression of the trp operon
The trp Operon is “ON”
- Lack of tryptophan deactivates the repressor and activates transcription via RNA Polymerase
- RNA polymerase transcribes trp operon genes
What are Lac operons?
- positive feedback loop because it’s not inhibited and is always off but on whenever needed
- An example of an inducible system to regulate gene expression
- The lac operon contains three genes (Z, Y, and A) needed for the breakdown of lactose in E. coli. All three genes are under the control of one promoter. Therefore, they undergo the same level of regulation. When lactose is not present, the lac repressor inhibits transcription.
- CAP = catabolite activator protein (protein that binds to help produce proteins to catabolize, or breakdown, lactose)
- used a lot in research b/c simple, not very big, not complex, grows quickly, this helps to manipulate DNA easier
Lac Operon “OFF”
- When lactose is absent this inhibits lac protein expression. A repressor protein (Lac1 protein) binds to the operator site.
- this blocks RNA polymerase from binding to the promoter
- no β-galactosidase is produced
- Negative feedback loop. In conditions of low lactose, there is increased activity of the repressor protein, which is decreasing the output of this operon.
Lac Operon “ON”
- The presence of lactose acts as an inducer. A derivative of lactose, allolactose binds to the Lac1 protein (repressor) so it can no longer bind to the operator of the lac operon DNA
- RNA polymerase can now bind to the promoter region and transcribe the lacZ, lacY, lacA enzymes
CAP is an activator
- When the cell detects low glucose, it will attempt to increase lactose metabolism and will therefore need these lactose metabolizing enzymes in high amounts.
- In conditions of low glucose, there tends to be high cAMP which binds to the CAP protein and allows it to attach to the CAP site and greatly increase the binding of RNA Polymerase to the promoter
What is a cell membrane?
- Separates contents of the cell from the extracellular environment
- A phospholipid bilayer, 0.006nm thick
- Fatty acid tails (hydrophobic) point inwards
- Polar head groups (hydrophilic) face inside and outside environment of cell (mostly water)
- Many of the membrane properties can be explained by the functioning of lipids
- Phospholipids are held together by weak intermolecular forces NOT covalent bonds
- Molecules embedded in the membrane can move around freely without breaking structure
- Push phospholipids out of the way
Mosaic: - a variety of macromolecules make up the membrane inside and surface - Proteins, glycoproteins, cholesterol
What are Membrane proteins?
- Integral membrane proteins are embedded, with hydrophobic ends within the membrane
- all channel proteins are integral proteins, but not all integral proteins are channel proteins
- Peripheral membrane proteins are loosely bound to the surface, and they have a polar surface
- Regulate transport of substances
- Reaction catalysis
- Cell recognition: proteins recognize certain carbohydrate chains. Help differentiate from foreign cells
- Signal reception and transduction: bind hormones and initiate a cellular response
What are Channel Proteins?
- Facilitated diffusion – protein membranes help aid diffusion without the use of energy
- Channel proteins – forms a channel across a cell membrane, which allows specific ions or molecules to cross the membrane along the concentration gradient
- The shape and size of the hole will determine which ions/molecules will pass through
- Channel proteins allow substances such as Na+ and K
- all channel proteins are integral proteins, but not all integral proteins are channel proteins
- they can have the interior be polar or nonpolar, depending on the lining. The substance coming in needs to be the same polar type as the lining in order to pass through channel protein
What are Carrier Proteins?
- binds to specific molecules, transport them across the membrane, and then release them on the other side. Thus, the proteins carry the molecules across
- Channel proteins can transport ions or small polar molecules
- The exterior of a carrier protein is usually composed of non-polar amino acids that interact with the non-polar interior of the membrane
- The interior of the carrier protein is lined with amino acids that can bind to the particle to be transported
What is Endocytosis?
- Process by which a cell engulfs material by folding the cell membrane around it and then pinching off to form a vesicle inside the cell
1.Phagocytosis – involves solid particles
2.Pinocytosis – involves liquid particles
3.Receptor-mediated endocytosis – use of receptor proteins on a portion of a cell that bind with specific molecules outside the cell
What is Exocytosis?
- Transport method in which a vacuole fuses with the cell membrane and releases its contents outside the cell.
- This is important in plants to construct cell walls
- In animal cells provides a mechanism for secreting and releasing many hormones, neurotransmitters, digestive enzymes, and other substances
What is Passive Transport?
- The movement of ions or molecules across a cell membrane from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration, without the input of energy.
- The ions or molecules move as a result of a concentration gradient
- A difference in concentration between one side of a membrane and the other
What is Active transport?
- The transport of a solute across a membrane against its gradient
- This occurs usually with the aid of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the main source of energy for cells
- With the aid of water, ATP undergoes hydrolysis to create ADP which releases energy for the cell
What is a Endomembrane system?
- contains nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, and vesicles
- the transportation and product-processing section of the cell
- helps to make sure cell’s functions are at a restricted to specific regions
- The organelles that are a part of the system are connected to one another either directly or by transport vesicles
1. surface of the rough er, polypeptides are produced by bound ribosomes and extruded into lumen, rather than being released into the cytosol
2. polypeptides travel through lumen to the smooth er, where they are stored and processed. When proteins are ready for transport, pieces of the smooth er pinch off to form vesicles containing the protein
3. vesicles from smooth er travel across the cell to the cis face of the golgi apparatus. The vesicles merge with the membrane of the golgi apparatus and release their contents into the interior. In ga, some proteins are stored and others are modified further.
4. When the modified proteins are ready for transport, pieces of the golgi apparatus pinch off from the trans face to form vesicles. the vesicles transport the proteins to the cell membrane r to other destinations within the cell
What is Initiation of DNA replication?
- During S-phase during interphase
- Replication starts at a specific nucleotide sequence called The Origin of Replication
- DNA helicase unwinds the double helix by breaking the H bonds between the complementary base pairs holding the two DNA strands together. It has a hole which has things like teeth that unwind the DNA, unzips DNA. For example, the triple bond between G and C will be broken by helicase
- Behind helicase is the replication fork,
- Single stranded binding proteins (SSBs) keep the individual strands apart by blocking the hydrogen bonding between the bases. Since the strands want to be helicase structure, SSBs help each strand to make the hydrogen bonds not connect
- Topoisomerase II (also called Gyrase)– relieves stress of the unwinding on the parent DNA molecule by cutting and un-twisting the molecule. When unwinding, the ends of the DNA strands will supercoil, which will cause it to break. Can be solved by having gyrase to relieve it by cutting the DNA, usually binds at the ends
- Replication starts at a specific nucleotide sequence - the origin of replication
- As the two strands of DNA are disrupted, the junction where they are still joined is called the replication fork
- In eukaryotes, DNA replication occurs at more than one site at a time, resulting in hundreds of replication forks across a DNA strand. This is important because it speeds up the process.
- When 2 replication forks form, a replication bubble is also formed
- If the helicase is seen on the left, DNA is unzipping on the left and is headed towards the left direction, INTO THE FORK
What is elongation of DNA replication?
- DNA polymerase III - main player that adds nucleotides to the new strand of DNA. can only add nucleotides in the 5′ to 3′ direction, and requires RNA primase as starting points, and requires condensation reactions to go through the 5’ to 3’ direction. RNA primers are the starting site because DNA polymerase III will immediately know that it should combine to it
- DNA is always synthesized in the 5′ to 3′ direction
- The leading strand is built continuously by Polymerase III toward the replication fork, starting with 1 RNA primer
- The lagging strand is synthesized by Polymerase III discontinuously in short fragments in the opposite direction to the replication fork
- These short fragments are called Okazaki fragments which each require RNA primers
- The enzyme Primase lays down RNA primers that will be used by DNA polymerase III as a starting point to build the new complementary strands
What is Termination of DNA replication?
- Replication process is completed
- Two new DNA molecules separate from each other
- Replication machine is dismantled
- Occurs upon completion of the new DNA strands
- New DNA molecules separate from each other
- Replication machine is dismantled
- Everything falls off (helicase, DNA polymerase III, etc.)
- The three DNA polymerase proofread the nucleotides
- While elongating DNA, polymerase III proof reads DNA (initial proofread)
- When polymerase I removes RNA primers to add DNA, the second proofreading happens
- The third time happens when DNA polymerase II is at the end to proofread
Why do we need RNA Primers?
- Allows DNA Polymerase III to bind to the strand
- DNA polymerase can only add new nucleotides to a free 3′ end of a growing chain of DNA
- DNA polymerase I removes the RNA primers from the leading strand and from the lagging strand’s fragments. It will then fill in the space with DNA nucleotides by extending the neighbouring DNA fragment
- DNA ligase enzyme joins the Lagging strand’s Okazaki fragments into one strand (if making RNA, then it’s RNA ligase)
- Synthesis of one strand of DNA (leading strand) proceeds continuously in the 5′ to 3′ direction
- Synthesis of the complementary strand (lagging strand) is more complex because it is running opposite to the leading strand, and DNA polymerase can ONLY add new nucleotides to a free 3′ end
- To solve this dilemma, the polymerase builds the lagging strand using many small pieces called Okazaki fragments
- DNA polymerase I will come and remove the RNA primers at the end of elongation
- On the leading strand, there’s only 1 RNA primer. If a bubble, there’s 2 on it.
- Primers are always on the 5’ end of the newly synthesized DNA
What is initiation of translation?
- Small ribosomal subunits bind to the 5′ cap of the mRNA transcript and translation commences
- mRNA codon AUG-codes for methionine amino acid (START)
- tRNA with anticodon UAC, carrying methionine will bind AUG site on mRNA
- Large ribosomal subunit binds the small subunit now, and activates the complex
What is elongation of transcription?
- RNA polymerase reads the template strand and adds complementary RNA nucleotides in the 5’-3’ direction
- Thymine (T) is replaced by Uracil (U)
- No Okazaki fragments form
- As soon as this begins, another RNA polymerase can bind to the promoter region and start building another strand of RNA (rapid production of RNA)
- RNA Polymerase can synthesize new strands much faster than DNA Polymerase could during DNA Replication
- RNA Polymerase does not proofread the RNA! This is because when there’s a mistake, the RNA turns to protein unlike DNA, which would cause the cell to die if there’s a mistake
- During elongation, an RNA polymerase complex moves along the DNA strand, the DNA helix unwinds, and complementary RNA nucleotides are joined together. After the RNA polymerase has passed, the DNA double helix reforms.
What is termination of transcription?
- Specific sequence signals the end – STOP sequence
- When RNA polymerases reach this sequence, they detach
- The newly synthesized RNA is released and ready to be processed into mRNA
DNA double helix reforms
What is the occipital lobe?
- back of brain
- visual association area
- primary visual cortex (visual input)
What is initiation of transcription?
mRNA initiation
- DNA transcription only occurs on one strand: the template strand
- There is no need to transcribe from the coding strand because it is identical to the mRNA being formed (except it has Thymine not Uracil)
- RNA polymerase: The main enzyme that catalyzes the formation of RNA from DNA
- DNA is unwound by RNA Polymerase to expose the template strand
- Also remember that the template strand must be 3’-5’. This allows the mRNA to be built 5’-3
What is the adrenal cortex?
(outer layer) - long term stress
Nervous system is NOT impacted
Releases ACTH- adrenal cortex hormone
Produces:
- Glucocorticoids (↑ blood sugar)- Helps to maintain energy, too much is stored as fat, which is why there’s a link to weight gain. Also causes suppression of calcium absorption, slow wound healing, muscle weakness.
- Mineralocorticoids (↑ blood pressure)- helps to keep blood flowing because the area that has more minerals will attract water to it, making it more flowy, blood pressure up. Increases sodium absorption in blood
What is cortisol?
Raises blood glucose levels
The most abundant glucocorticoid stress hormone. It is produced via long-term stress response. Releasing hormones stimulate secretion of ACTH from the anterior pituitary gland. ACTH is released to stimulate the cortisol release (too much ACTH is a long term stress response). The cortisol breaks down muscle protein into amino acids, which are then removed from the blood by the liver. Glucose is released by the blood. Cortisol can help with breaking down fat cells. Negative feedback loop happens when the increased levels of cortisol helps to suppress ACTH and its release. Cortisol also reduces allergic/inflammatory immune system responses that are caused from damaged tissues.
What is the adrenal medulla?
(inner layer) - short term stress
Connection between endocrine + nervous systems
Affects the nervous system because since epinephrine and norepinephrine are released, they re hormones and neurotransmitters that affect it
The production of those two hormones by the adrenal medulla regulate “Right, Flight, or Freeze” response
What is elongation of translation?
- Ribosome moves along mRNA from 5’ to 3’, reading the code in triplet codons
When the start codon is in the P site, tRNA has delivered methionine - Second codon is now in the A site
- Appropriate tRNA delivers the next amino acid in the protein sequence
- Peptide bond is formed between methionine and the second amino acid in the P site
- Then, the Ribosome subunits shift down one codon (moving in 5′ to 3′ direction of mRNA strand)
- mRNA is read 5’-3’
- The polypeptide chain grows while it is in the P site
- The start codon establishes the reading frame – all codons read by the ribosome to form the protein
- Methionine is transferred to the A-site amino acid, the first tRNA exits, the ribosome moves one codon (3 base pairs) along mRNA
- First tRNA goes to pick up another amino acid (met)
- This puts the amino acid chain in the P-site, and frees up the A site for the next tRNA
- As elongation continues, the growing peptide is continually transferred to the A-site tRNA, the ribosome moves along the mRNA, new tRNAs enter, and peptide bonds are formed
- Process of elongation continues until a stop codon is read in the A site
- Stop codons are UAG, UGA and UAA
What are post-transcriptional modifications?
mRNA undergoes changes in the nucleus (only mRNA)
Alternative splicing can produce different mRNA molecules
- 5’ Cap and 3’ poly-A tail are purposefully not added
- RNA interference – the regulation of gene expression by small RNA’s (sRNA); it inhibits gene expression by degrading mRNA or inhibiting translation by binding to it, inhibits the mature RNA from making protein
- Small RNA’s (micro RNA) and small interfering RNA can inhibit translation and interact with specific mRNA’s
- if ribosomal subunits attach, where methionine attaches to p site, translation can be blocked by a site. If a site is blocked, only methionine is in, but won’t be enough to fold so it won’t be functional
What is termination of translation?
- Elongation ends when a stop codon is encountered in the A-site
- A release factor enters the A-site and causes the ribosome subunits to disassemble (small and large subunits fall apart) and translation is terminated, releasing the mRNA and newly formed protein
- Protein is folded and modified and then targeted to areas of the cell where it is required
- mRNA can be retranslated, or can be degraded immediately
- The anticodon is also in RNA format
- PROTEIN SEQUENCE IS STILL READ FROM MRNA MOLECULE
What are adrenal glands?
pair of organs that regulate stress response and blood sugar levels. They are located on top of the kidneys, and they are connected to them.
deal with short and long term stress response
can deal with epinephrine and norepinephrine
can secrete cortisol
Composed of two layers
What is pyruvate oxidation?
- When oxygen is available, the 2 pyruvates produced in glycolysis in the cytosol are transported into the mitochondrial matrix and oxidized to 2 Acetyl-Coenzyme A’s
- 3-Carbon pyruvate is converted into 2-Carbon Acetyl-Coenzyme A complex (Ac-CoA)
- This releases 1 carbon in the form of CO2
- NAD+ is reduced (gains electrons) to NADH
- This reaction is coupled to the release of carbon dioxide
- The 2 carbon acetyl group associates with CoA
- **this produces 2 NADH and 2 Ac-CoA since two pyruvate molecules enter from glycolysis
What are the levels in mitochondria?
from outer to inner:
- outer mitochondrial membrane
- intermembrane space
- inner mitochondrial membrane
- Matrix
What is the Frontal lobe?
-top front of brain
- general motor association area
- primary motor area
- frontal association area (planning, personality)
- Broca’s area (expressing language)
What is a nephron?
- The smallest functional unit of a kidney
- Embedded within renal cortex and extending into renal medulla
- Over 1 million per kidney
- Intertwined with capillaries for fast diffusion
- Filters various substances from blood, transforming it to urine
- 3 main regions: filter, tubule, collecting duct
What happens when you are jump-scared?
- Stimulus occurs, the Amygdala interprets images and sound as stressful, which sends distress signal to hypothalamus
- Hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous system via autonomic nerves, carrying signal from hypothalamus to adrenal medulla glands, bypasses pituitary gland and through spinal cord
- Neurons stimulate adrenal medulla to secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine
- remember: adrenal medulla is responsible for making epinephrine and norepinephrine, NOT BRAIN - Triggers stress response – increase body activity
Results:
- Rapid release and effects due to nervous system control
- Effects last many times longer than nervous system effects
What is the parietal lobe?
- top of brain
- primary somatosensory area
- taste
- general sensory association area
What is the krebs cycle?
The cyclic metabolic pathway that oxidizes acetyl-CoA and breaks it down
- It converts released energy to be stored as ATP, NADH, and FADH2.
- Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix
- 2 ATPs produced (substrate level phosphorylation) (1 in each turn of the Krebs cycle)
- 6 NADH produced (3 in each turn of the Krebs cycle) - 2 FADH2 produced (1 in each turn of the Krebs cycle
What is the temporal lobe?
- both sides of brain (left and right)
- smell
- auditory area (hearing input)
- auditory association area
- facial recognition area (on inner side of cortex)
- Wernicke’s area (understanding language)
What is lactate fermentation?
- Pyruvate is converted to lactate (or lactic acid) in the absence of oxygen
- Reacts with NADH to oxidize to NAD+
- Lactate is acidic and must be transported out of cells to protect the surrounding tissue
- Lactic Acid contributes to the burning and soreness you feel in your muscles as you work out
