bio everything Flashcards
What are cell organelles?
-“Small organs”
-All the functions of a cell are carried out by organelles
cell membrane
-Structure that separates the cell interior from the outside world and controls the movements of materials into and out of the cell
-helps the cell maintain homeostasis
-has a phospholipid biolayer
cell wall
-Surrounds the cell membrane and is strong and fairly rigid
-it helps to give a plant shape and support
-made up of a network of tough fibers mainly made of cellulose
cytoplasm
Everything inside the cell membrane including the organelles
(except the nucleus)
cytosol
The fluid inside the cell in which the organelles are suspended
nucleus
-Command center of the cell that contains DNA blueprints for making proteins
-surrounded by a double membrane to protect the DNA
nucleolus
A specialized area of Chromatin inside the nucleus responsible for producing ribosomes
ribosomes
Tiny two-part structure found throughout the cytoplasm that helps put together proteins
endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
system of a flattened membrane-bound sac and tubes continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope
rough endoplasmic reticulum
Has ribosomes and synthesizes protein
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Has canals which help transport the proteins throughout the cell
vesicles
-small membrane bound transport sacs
-some special types of vesicles have different jobs in the cell
lysosome
Contains digestive enzymes that break down old cell parts of materials brought into cells
golgi apparatus
-Stack of flattened membrane-bound sacks that receive vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum
-package finished products in the vesicles for transport to the cell membrane (for secretion out of the cell) and within the cell as lysosomes
vacuole
Large membrane-bound fluid-filled Sac for the temporary storage of food, water, or waste products
mitochondrion
Powerhouse of the cell where organic molecules (usually carbohydrates) are broken down inside a double membrane to release and transfer energy
chloroplast
-Site of photosynthesis
-gives green plants their color and transfers energy from sunlight into stored energy and carbohydrates during photosynthesis
how do the cells work
-Insulin protein information from DNA is copied to RNA
-RNA exits the nucleus
-at ribosomes on the surface of rough ER information from RNA is used to make a protein that will become insulin
-vesicles from smooth ER package the protein for transport to the Golgi apparatus
-in the Golgi apparatus, the proteins are processed to form insulin protein and packaged for export out of the cell
all the organelles for the sheet
-Lysosome
- nucleolus
- nucleus
- Golgi apparatus
- endoplasmic reticulum
- cell membrane
- ribosome
- cytoplasm
- mitochondria
types of cells
prokaryotic and eukaryotic
what is a prokaryotic cells
-have no nucleaus
-simple internal structure
-move using flagella
-have cell walls made of a chemical called peptideglycan
-lacks membrane bound organelles
what is a eukaryotic
-have a nucleaus
-have membrane bound organelles
-bigger then prokaryotic
plant cells vs animal cells
-plant cells have an outer cell wall made of celloluse anima cells do not
-plant cells have one large vacuole animal cells have several small ones
-plant cells have chloroplasts animals do not.
cell membrane
-transports raw material INTO the cell
-transports manufactured products and waste OUT of the cell
-prevents the entry of unwanted material into the cel
-prevents the escape of matter needed to prefer cellular functions
- has a phospholipid bilayer
the cell membrane is _______ and that means…
selectivly permeable
that means it allows some molecules to enter the cell and prevents others.
phosphilipid bilayer
composed of a hydrophillic head and two hydrophobic tails
cholesterol
a lipid that regulates the rigidity of the membrane over different temperature ranges
carrier proteins
changes shape to move specific molecules in or out of the cell
channel proteins
have a tunnel that allow specific ions to move in or out of the cell
proteins
-serve to allow materials in and out of the cell
-these proteins are often specific to certain molecules
carbohydrates
-attachs to proteins or phospholipids and protrude outside the cell
-often involved in the immune responsehelping cells to identify one and other
two main methods of maintaining homostasis
1.passive tranpsort
2. active transport
passive transport
the movement of any substances across a cell membrane without the use of cellular energy
3 types of passive transport
-simple diffusion
-osmosis
-facilitated diffusion
simple diffusion
-the movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to lower concentration
-occurs down the concentration gradient (high to low)
osmosis
-the diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane
facilitated diffusion
-if materials are to large or too charged to diffuse across the membrane without assistance, channel or carrier proteins provide help to move them.
-the integral proteins are specific to the materials they are transporting by size,shape,and electric charge
3 diffrent types of extracellular solutions
- isotonic
2.hypotonic
3.hypertonic
isotonic solution
-water concentration outside the cell is equal to the concentration inside the cell
-water is moving in and out of the cell equally
hypotonic solution
-water concentration ouside the cell is greater then the concentration inside the cell
-water moves into the cell
hypertonic solution
-water concentration outside the cell is less then the concentration inside the cell
- water moves outside the cell
tonicity in animal cells
-hypotonic solution=cytolysis
(too much water inside the cell and can cause it to explode)
-isotonic solution=normal
(proper flow in water in and out of the cell)
-hypertonic solution=shriveled
(cell isn’t getting enough water and shrivels up)
tonicity in plant cells
-hypotonic solution=turgid (normal)
-isotonic solution=flaccid
-hypertonic solution= plasmolysis (shriveled)
active transport
-the movement of any substance across a cell membrane with the use of energy from ATP
- PROTEINS move substances from area of lower concentration to areas with higher concentration (against the concentration gradeint)
-moving against the gradient is important in the process of digestion and the removalof waste
examples of active transport
-Kidney cells pump glucose and amino acids out of the urine and back into the blood
-intestinal cells pump nutrients from the gut
-plant root cells pump nutrients from the soil
-fish gill cells pump sodium ions out of the body
bulk membrane transport
-Sometimes molecules are too large or too polar to cross through the cell membrane
- The cell uses specialized methods of getting materials in or out of the cell using ENDOCYTOSIS or EXOCYTOSIS
endocytosis
-the process in which a cell engulfs itself around large substances
- the membrane folds in on itself trapping matter from the extracellular fluid within it forming a vesicle
exocytosis
-reverse of endocytosis
-a vesicle from the inside of the cell fuses with the cell membrane
- the contents of the vesicle are excecreted (expelled) into the extracellular fluid
-very important to the cell of organs that secrete hormones (ex. the pancreas secretes insulin)
-it is also the process by which wastes are packaged in vesicles and leave the cell
large cells
-lower surface area (aka surface area to volume ratio )
-less surface exposed for cell membrane transport
small cells
-high surface area
-more effecient at allowing transport across the cell membrane
why do cells need energy
-cells need energy to function and carbon to build biological molecules
-ATP is a molecule that cerlls use for readily available energy
-ATP breaks down to form another molecule called ADP, releasing a small “packet” of energy the cell can use
examples of processes in the body that require ATP
-active transport materials into the cell
-moving chromosomes during cell division
-the contraction of muscles
-synthesizing macromolecules
aerobic resporation
-the cellular process that uses oxygen to release energy, as atp, from glucose
-ATP is short for adenosine triphosphate (a nucleotide)
-the chemical reaction of ATP releases
*a molecule called ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
*a free phosphate group
*a burst of energy that cells can use right away
anaerobic resperation
cellular reperation that proceeds without oxygen
the stages of aerobic resporation
- glycolysis
- breakdown of pyruvate
- Krebs cycle
- oxidative phosphorylation
* The first stage, glycolysis, takes place in the cytosol
* the remaining stages take place in the mitochondria
glycolysis
-Through two distinct phases, the six-carbon ring of glucose is cleaved into two-three carbon sugars of pyruvate through a series of enzymatic reactions
-The net result of the process, in adding to the splitting of glucose, is that two molecules of ATP are formed
-The first stage of anaerobic respiration that makes ATP without using oxygen
breakdown of pyruvate
-The peruvate molecules enter the mitochondria and are converted into a two-carbon immediate
krebs cycle
This is the breaking down of molecules from stage 2 into CO2 molecules and H2O molecules and generating additional ATP
oxidative phosphorylation
The energy-carrying molecules produced in the previous stages are used to make ATP
stages of photosynthesis
- light-dependent reactions
- Calvin cycle
light-dependent reactions
- chlorophyll pigments absorb light energy
- light energy is used to make two molecules needed for the next stage of photosynthesis
- this stage of photosynthesis uses a molecule of water and produces a molecule of oxygen
calvin cycle
-Uses the products of the light dependent reactions to convert carbon dioxide into glucose
- these reactions occur in the stroma of the chloroplast
complementary processes
-Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are the opposite of each other in terms of reactants and products
- in photosynthesis plants use energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen
-this is the reverse overall reaction for aerobic respiration
reactants, products, and energy involved in photosynthesis
-reactants
*carbon dioxide, water
-products
*glucose, oxygen
-energy involved
*input of radiant energy (sunlight)
reactants, products, and energy involved in cellular resperation
-reactants
*glucose, oxygen
-products
*carbon dioxide, water
-energy involved
*release of chemical energy (ATP)
what is a cell
-the building blocks of life
-smallest unit of life that can live on its own
-
how many elements are essential to life?
25
97% of the body is made up of what 4 elements
-hydrogen
-oxygen
-nitrogen
-carbon
trace elements
-make up 0.55%
*iron
*iodine
bulk elements
-make up 3.45%
*sodium
*magnesium
*phosphorus
*potassium
*calcium
ions
-charged particles that take part in many biological processes
-ions that are dissolved in the body fluid are called electrolytes
chemical reactions
-elements and compounds are rearanged to form different substances with different properties
- reactant bonds break and product bonds are formed
what is the role of water in living systems
-Provides a medium for most chemical reactions
- transports dissolve substances throughout the system
- a reactant in many of lives chemical reactions
- regulates temperature
water is referred to as ____
the universal solvant
hydrophillic
-“water loving”
-hydrophillic substances dissolve in water
-usually polar molecules or ions
-ex.sugar, table salt
hydrophobic
-“water fearing”
-hydrophic substances do not dissolve in water
-usually non-polar or molecules
-ex. fats,oils
macromolecules
large molecules made up of smaller molecules
the 4 major classes of biological macromolecules are…
-carbohydrates
-lipids
-proteins
-nucleic acid
tundra
-lacks trees and has permanently frozen soil
-The Arctic tundra exists in high-latitude regions, particularly in far northern expanses of the northern hemisphere and the far south of the southern hemisphere.
-Plants include Short grasses, lichens, and mosses
-animals include arctic foxes, arctic hares, and migratory birds.
Boreal Forest
-mixed coniferous and deciduous trees that stretches across northern North
America, Europe, and Asia
-The winter is cold and lengthy, the summer is warm but brief
-the soil has abundant moisture.
-Dominant plants are coniferous trees (spruce, pine, larch)
Temperate Deciduous Forest
-has a winter-summer change of seasons and that typically receives 75 cm to 150 cm or more of evenly distributed precipitation
-in Canada, this biome occurs mostly in southern Ontario, southern Quebec, and parts of the Atlantic provinces
-Supports a diverse mixture of species of broad-leaved trees.
Prairie Grassland
-cover regions in North America and Europe, as well as Africa and Australia.
-their vegetation: shortgrass, mixed grass, and tallgrass. Trees are rare.
-Prairie grasslands have many large grazing animals, such as antelope.
-Predators such as wolves and coyotes are also present.
Aquatic Biomes
Abiotic factors that are important to aquatic biomes include the depth to which light can penetrate the
water, temperature, salinity, the amount of nutrients, and the amount of current.
netric zone
-Relatively shallow, typically less than 100 m to 200 m in depth.
-Relatively warm, receive lots of light, & have more nutrients compared to deep ocean.
- supports a much larger biomass of fish and other animals than deep ocean.
Oceanic zone
- the open ocean
Bathyal zone
-region of ocean between 1000 m and 4000 m deep.
-Only a small amount of light reaches the bathyal zone.
-The pressure is also high due to the amount of water above
-Fish and other organisms in the bathyal zone are adapted to live in darkness.
-Eels, squid, crustaceans, and jellyfish are found in the bathyal zone.
Abyssal zone
-region of ocean between 4000 m and 6000 m deep.
-No light reaches the abyssal zone
-The water temperature is near freezing and the pressure is immense.
-Despite the harsh conditions, fish, squid, octopus, worms, and molluscs live in the
abyssal zone.
Estuaries
-Semi-enclosed coastal ecosystem transitional between marine and freshwater habitats.
-An important characteristic of estuaries is their regular fluctuations of salinity due to the daily tidal cycle, along with inflows of fresh water from the nearby land.
individual
one single organism that has specific physical features and behaviours
Species
organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring.
population
all the members of the same species living in a specific geographical area
community
all organisms in all the interacting populations in a specific area
ecosystem
a community of populations together with the abiotic factors
that surround and affect it.
biome
group of ecosystems in a specific region on Earth with unique features
biosphere
All of the areas of the Earth (including air, water, and land) that contain life
the 6 kingdoms
-Bacteria
-Archaea
-Protista
-Fungi
-Plantae
-Animalia
Carbohydrates
- Biomolecule containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
- Carbohydrates are an important source of energy
-Common carbohydrates include, sugars, starch, and cellulose
3 Types of Carbohydrates
-Monosaccharides (Single sugars)
-Disaccharides (Two sugars linked)
-Polysaccharides (Complex sugars/polymers)
Lipids
-Fats
-They do not dissolve in water (This is because they are non-polar/hydrophobic)
-They have twice as much energy as equal masses of carbohydrate or protein
3 types of Lipids
-Triglyceride
-Phospholipids
-Steroids
Triglycerides
- They make up the fats and oils in their diet
-They’re used primarily to store energy
-They can be saturated or unsaturated
Saturated Triglycerides
- (Saturated fats)
- Contains all the hydrogen atoms it possibly can
- Solid at room temperature
Unsaturated Triglycerides
- (Unsaturated fats)
-Has one or more double bonds between carbon atoms
-Liquid at room temperature
Phospholipids
- Has a hydrophilic head and Hydrophobic tails
- They’re a key component in a cell membrane
Cholesterol
-Is a steroid in animals that helps keep the cell membrane stable
- Ex. (Testosterone & Estrogen)
9 functions of proteins
-Transports ions in and out of cells
-Transports oxygen in blood
-Helps blood to clot and thus stops bleeding
-Helps grow fingernails and hair and protects skin
-Breaks down starch
-Makes up tendons that attach muscle to bone
-Makes up muscle tissue
-Acts as a chemical messenger between cells
-Blind to viruses and bacteria that can affect the body
