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BIO CH 3 Flashcards

1
Q

catabolism

A

break down macromolecules and release ATP

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2
Q

Anabolic

A

use ATP to build macromolecules

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3
Q

Chemical energy

A

a form of potential energy where chemical bonds serve as a store of energy and have the potential to be used to do work

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4
Q

exergonic reactions

A

release energy, are spontaneous reactions (negative Gibbs free energy)
-EXergonic reactions means that free energy is EXiting the system

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5
Q

endergonic reactions

A

require energy, are non-spontaneous processes because they require energy input to proceed to final state

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6
Q

What is ATP

A

energy source

is an RNA nucleotide/RNA nucleoside triphosphate

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7
Q

difference between RNA and DNA

A

RNA- ribose sugar (OH on 2’)

DNA- Deoxyribose sugar (H on 2’)

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8
Q

Component of ATP

A
  • adenosine
  • ribose sugar
  • 3 phosphate groups
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9
Q

Difference between ATP and RNA nucleic acid

A

RNA has 1 phosphate, ATP has 3 phosphate groups

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10
Q

___ reactions breaks the high potential energy bonds of phosphate to release free energy

A

hydrolysis

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11
Q

What is reaction coupling

A

powering an energy-requiring reaction with an energy-releasing one, resulting in a negative Gibbs free energy (exergonic)

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12
Q

Mitochondria make ATP through ____, which is a _____process

A

cellular respiration

catabolic

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13
Q

The intermembrane space of mitochondria is

A

acidic

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14
Q

Mitochondrial matrix contains its own

A

circular DNA and ribosomes

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15
Q

Chloroplasts contains its own

A

circular DNA and ribosomes

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16
Q

What is the endosymbiotic theory

A

mitochondria(aerobic) and chloroplasts(photosynthetic) were once free-living bacteria, then internalized.

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17
Q

Aerobic cellular respiration is a ___ pathway that requires ____

A

catabolic

oxygen

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18
Q

Glycolysis converts ___ into ____ and is an ____ process

A

glucose
pyruvate
anaerobic

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19
Q

Where does glycolysis take place

A

cytosol

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20
Q

During glycolysis, NAD+ is ___ to NADH

A

reduced

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21
Q

What are the two phases of glycolysis

A

energy investment phase

energy payoff phase

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22
Q

Where is glucose phosphorylated by in the cytosol

A

glucokinase and hexokinase (only have to know hexokinase for the DAT though)

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23
Q

phosphorylation is

A

non-reversible

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24
Q

What is glucose called after phosphorylation?

A

glucose-6-phosphate

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25
Q

What is an isomerase

A

an enzyme that modifies glucose-6-phosphate into fructose-6-phosphate

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26
Q

What steps of glycolysis hydrolyze ATP?

A

Glucose-> Glucose-6-phosphate

Fructose-6-phosphate-> fructose-1,6-bisphosphate

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27
Q

What enzymes phosphorylates fructose-6-phosphate?

A

phosphofructokinase (PFK), makes fructose-1,6-bisphosphate

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28
Q

What are the irreversible steps of glycolysis?

A

those that require the hydrolysis of ATP

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29
Q

PFK is an

A

essential regulatory enzyme

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30
Q

By the end of the energy investment stage, ____ and ____ are made and exist in equilibrium

A

glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) and dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)

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31
Q

G3P and DHAP are ___-carbon sugars

A

3

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32
Q

Which of the sugars undergoes additional reactions in glycolysis

A

G3P

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33
Q

What is produced during the energy-payoff phase?

A 
4 ATP (Net gain: 2), 2 pyruvate, 2 NADH 
(total- for each G3P- 2 ATP, 1 pyruvate, 1 NADH is produced)
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34
Q

The products of the energy-payoff phase are produced through

A

substrate-level phosphorylation

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35
Q

How many steps are in the energy-investment stage?

A

1-5

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36
Q

How many steps are in the energy-payoff phase?

A

6-10

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37
Q

What happens to the pyruvate molecules in the mitochondrial matrix?

A

They are decarboxylated, releasing CO2

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38
Q

Where do pyruvate manipulations occur in prokaryotes? Why?

A

the cytosol, because they have no membrane-bound organelles

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39
Q

Once pyruvate looses CO2, it is a ___ molecule

A

2-carbon

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40
Q

What happens to the pyruvate after is looses CO2?

A

It undergoes an oxidation to become a 2-carbon acetyl group

This oxidation reaction also reduces NAD+->NADH

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41
Q

Once made, what happens to the acetyl group?

A

It binds to Coenzyme A (CoA)

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42
Q

What are pyruvate manipulations carried out by?

A

pyruvate dehydrogenase

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43
Q

What do the pyruvate manipulations produce per glucose?

A

2 CO2
2 NADH
2 Acetyl-Coa

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44
Q

Other names for the Kreb’s Cycle

A

the citric acid cycle

the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle

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45
Q

Where does the Kreb’s cycle occur?

A
  • the mitochondrial matrix in eukaryotes

- the cytosol in prokaryotes

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46
Q

What is the first step of the Kreb’s cycle?

A

a 2-carbon acetyl-CoA joins 4-carbon oxaloacetate to form 6-carbon citrate

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47
Q

What happens to citrate once made?

A

Undergoes rearrangements, where it looses 2-carbons as CO2

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48
Q

What happens each time CO2 is released from citrate?

A

NAD+ is reduced to NADH

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49
Q

What happens to the 4-carbon molecule after CO2 is released?

A

It progresses through the rest of the Kreb’s cycle, producing GTP

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50
Q

How is GTP produced?

A

substrate-level phosphorylation

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51
Q

What is GTP?

A

guanosine triphosphate, an RNA nucleotide triphosphate (similar to ATP)

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52
Q

What happens to the 4-carbon molecule after GTP is made?

A

passes electrons to flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)

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53
Q

What is FAD?

A

an electron-carrying coenzyme similar to NAD+

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54
Q

What happens to FAD once made?

A

undergoes reduction to make FADH2

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55
Q

What happens to the 4-carbon molecule once FAD is made?

A

it transforms into oxaloacetate, reducing NAD+-> NADH in the process

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56
Q

The Kreb’s cycle produces

A
  • 2 CO2
  • 3 NADH
  • 1 FADH2
  • 1GTP
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57
Q

How many times does the Kreb’s cycle occur per glucose?

A

Twice- once for each Acetyl-Co-A/pyruvate

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58
Q

One glucose molecule results in what after going through the Kreb’s cycle?

A
  • 4 CO2
  • 6 NADH
  • 2 FADH2
  • 2 GTP
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59
Q

Oxidative phosphorylation encompasses what components?

A

electron transport chain and chemiosmosis

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60
Q

What is the electron transport chain (ETC)?

A

made up of proteins and molecules that pass high-energy electrons from one component to the next

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61
Q

With each transfer, the electrons release ___ that the ETC uses to form an _____.

A

free energy

electrochemical gradient

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62
Q

Chemiosmosis uses energy stores in the electrochemical gradient to _____

A

synthesis ATP

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63
Q

As electrons reach the end of the ETC, they are passed to an O2 molecule to form

64
Q

What is the final electron acceptor for aerobic ETCs?

65
Q

Where is the ETC in eurkaryotes?

A

the mitochondrial inner membrane

66
Q

Where is the ETC in prokaryotes?

A

along the cell membrane

67
Q

ETC proteins are four large clusters called

A

protein complexes I-IV

68
Q

Why do high-energy electrons pass through the ETC?

A

because each ETC protein is more electron hungry than the last

69
Q

How does the ETC operate?

A

Through a series of oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions

-with each transfer of electrons, the electron source becomes oxidized while the electron target becomes reduced

70
Q

As redox reactions occur, the ___ pump protons from the mitochondrial matric into the intermembrane space, forming an ___

A

protein complexes

electrochemical gradient

71
Q

The ____ gradient will be harnessed to create ATP

A

chemiosmotic

72
Q

What are the electron donors?

A

NADH and FADH2

73
Q

Which of the reduced coenzymes are more effective and why

A

NADH, is travels directly to complex I

74
Q

What happens to NADH/FADH2 once it contacts its respective complex?

A

it becomes oxidized to NAD+/FAD and can be used as a substrate in earlier stages of oxidative phosphorylation

75
Q

As NAD+/FAD is regenerated, its complex undergoes a ____

76
Q

oxidative phosphorylation directly depends on ___ as the _____

A

oxygen

final electron acceptor of aerobic ETCs

77
Q

oxidative pyruvate oxidation and Krebs cycles depend ___ on oxygen

A

indirectly

78
Q

How does chemiosmosis synthesis ATP?

A

harnesses energy stored within the proton gradient as protons diffuse across the inner membrane from an area of high concentration(intermembrane space) to low concentration(mitochondrial matrix)

79
Q

Where is NADH oxidized?

80
Q

Where is FADH2 oxidized?

A

Complex II

81
Q

Electrons travel from ___ to ___ as the terminal electron acceptor, producing ____ in the ___

A

Complex IV
oxygen
water
matrix

82
Q

Electrons released from FADH2 are used for pumping protons at

A

Complexes III and IV

83
Q

The ___ is acidic due to the proton gradient

A

intermembrane space

84
Q

Protons travel down their electrochemical gradient though ___

A

ATP synthase

85
Q

ATP synthase relies on the ___ of chemiosmosis

A

proton motive force

86
Q

What is the Gibbs free energy value of aerobic respiration?

A

-686kcal/mol glucose

87
Q

aerobic respiration is a ___ reaction

88
Q

How many ATP are made from oxidative phosphorylation in eukaryotes?

A

36-38/glucose

89
Q

A single NADH produces

90
Q

A single FADH2 produces

91
Q

Which produces more ATP? NADH from the cytosol or elsewhere? Why?

A

NADH produced elsewhere (not via glycolysis in the cytosol) generates more ATP because NADH needs a shuttle to get from the cytosol to the mitochondria

92
Q

NADH from glycolysis in eukaryotes produce how many ATP?

93
Q

NADH from glycolysis in prokaryotes produce how many ATP?

94
Q

How many ATP do prokaryotes produce from aerobic respiration?

95
Q

What happens when oxygen isn’t available to be the final electron acceptor?

A

the processes that follow glycolysis does not occur and NAD+ is not regenerated

96
Q

What is fermentation

A

an anaerobic pathway that oxidizes NADH-> NAD+ so that glycolysis can continue making ATP

97
Q

What does lactic acid fermentation produce? How?

A

NAD+

NADH transfers its electrons to pyruvate, regenerating NAD+ and reducing pyruvate into lactate/lactic acid

98
Q

What is the Cori cycle?

A

a process humans undergo once oxygen becomes available again to convert lactate back into glucose

99
Q

The Cori cycle transports ___ from the ___ through the bloodstream to ___ cells. Once there, the lactate can ___ back into ____. Pyruvate can form glucose through ____

A 
lactate
myocytes
liver/hepatocytes
oxidize 
pyruvate
gluconeogenesis
100
Q

How many ATP are required to form pyruvate in the Cori Cycle?

101
Q

What is the only organ that can release glucose into the blood and why

A

liver

it is the only organ with the enzyme to reverse hexokinase

102
Q

Alcohol fermentation regenerates __ for glycolysis to continue making 2 ATP

103
Q

In alcohol fermentation, pyruvate is ____ to lose carbon as ___

A

decarboxylated

CO2

104
Q

The leftover molecule from decarboxylation is ___

A

acetaldehyde

105
Q

NADH reduces ____ into ___, ___ back to NAD+ in the process to continue undergoing fermentative glycolysis

A

acetaldehyde
ethanol
oxidizing

106
Q

What are obligate aerobes

A

organisms that can only metabolize fuel via aerobic respiration and cannot undergo fermentation

107
Q

What are obligate anaerobes

A

organisms that only metabolize fuel via anaerobic respiration/fermentation
-oxygen is toxic to them

108
Q

What are facultative anaerobes

A

can utilize aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration or fermentation. Undergo aerobic respiration is oxygen is present since it produces more ATP

109
Q

What are microaerophiles?

A

cannot live without oxygen. Cannot undergo anaerobic respiration or fermentation. High concentrations of oxygen are harmful to them

110
Q

What are aerotolerant organisms

A

cannot use oxygen, only use anaerobic respiration/fermentation
-presence of oxygen is not toxic

111
Q

What is the storage form of glucose

112
Q

Where does glycogen enter cellular respiraiton

A

glycolysis

113
Q

What is the process of breaking down glycogen

A

glycogenolysis

114
Q

Glycogen if broken down to ___, and thus does not require hexokinase

A

Glucose-6-phosphate

115
Q

Glycogen is a highly branched ___ (polymer of many monomeric carbohydrates_

A

polysaccharide

116
Q

Carbohydrates are catabolized to provide

A

4 kcal/gram

117
Q

glycogen is hard to store because it is

A

hydrophilic and attracts water

118
Q

Where is glycogen stored

A

liver (2/3)

muscle (1/3)

119
Q

When fuel sources are abundant, ___ occurs

A

glycogenesis

120
Q

Fats exist as

A

triacylglycerides/triglycerides

121
Q

fatty acid tails of TAGs are attached to the glycerol backbone via__, formed by____

A

ester linkages

dehydration reactions

122
Q

___convert TAGs into FFAs and alcohols

123
Q

digesting a TAG with a lipase is called

124
Q

Humans absorb ingested fats through ___ of the __ as ____ and ___. Once in the cell, they reform into TAGs

A

enterocytes
SI
Monoglycerides and FFAs

125
Q

TAGs, proteins, phospholipids and cholesterol pair up in enterocytes, forming

A

chylomicrons (lipoproteins)

126
Q

Chylomicrons leave enterocytes and enter ___ that deliver fats to the rest of the body

127
Q

____ store TAGs, forming ___

A

adipocytes

adipose tissue

128
Q

Before a TAG can enter an adipocyte from a chylomicron, ___ must act on it to break it down to ___ and ___. Once inside the adipocyte, the TAG will reform

A

lipase
MAG
FFA

129
Q

What is lipolysis

A

breakdown of fats

130
Q

When enzyme performs lipolysis

A

hormone sensitive lipase

131
Q

___ can also transport FFAs

132
Q

Why are LDLs considered unhealthy

A

they deliver cholesterol to peripheral tissue, clogging blood vessels

133
Q

Why are HDLs considered healthy

A

They take cholesterol away from peripheral tissue and deliver it to the liver to make bile

134
Q

Once in the liver, glycerol can undergo ___ or___

A

glycolysis

gluconeogenesis

135
Q

FFAs enter cell respiration as

A

acetyl-CoA

136
Q

What is beta-oxidation and where does it occur

A

converts FFA to acetyl-coA

occurs in the mitochondrial matrix

137
Q

Fats yeild how much energy

A

9kcal/gram

138
Q

Before FA can enter beta oxidation, what must occur?

A

activate the FA chain with ATP

139
Q

What happens to the FA once ATP is invested?

A

a series of cleavages into 2-carbon acetyl-CoA

140
Q

What happens to Acetyl-Coa once made

A

it enters the Krebs cycle, producing NADH and FADH2

141
Q

What is the least desirable fuel source?

142
Q

Proteins broken down produce

A

Amino Acids

143
Q

Proteins provide how much energy

A

4kcal/gram

144
Q

What is the preferred energy source

A

carbohydrates

145
Q

What must happen to amino acids before they undergo cell respiration?

A

oxidative deamination in the liver

146
Q

What is oxidative deamination

A

Ammonia is removed from the amino acids to create a molecule easier to shuttle into cellular respiraiton

147
Q

Ammonia is __ to vertebrates

148
Q

Insects, reptiles and birds convert ammonia to ___ before excreting it

149
Q

Sharks, amphibians, and mammals convert ammonia to ____ before excreting it as ___

A

urea

urine

150
Q

How to aquatic species and invertebrates excrete ammonia?

A

directly as ammonia

151
Q

Amino acid byproducts of oxidative deamination can enter cellular respiration at ____ depending on ___-

A

various points

the starting amino acid

152
Q

Why is proteolysis an inefficient fuel source

A

it requires energy to get amino acid byproducts into cellular respiration

153
Q

Why are proteins a last resort in cellular respiration

A

cells need a pool of amino acids to make the proteins they use to carry out functions

154
Q

Proteins can contribute to ___

A

gluconeogenesis

155
Q

After the larynx, air flows into the

DAT (3 decks)

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