Bio/Biochem Flashcards
Action Potential
“All or Nothing”
Resting Membrane Potential
more sodium ions Na+ outside than inside the neuron
more potassium ions K+ inside than outside the neuron
Blood Pathway
Electric Signal Pathway for Heart Contraction
SA->AV->bundle of His->right and left bundle branches
->Purkinje fibers
Hyaline Cartilage
strong and somewhat flexible; rings of trachea, lining of joints. Prevents bone on bone rubbing.
Menstrual Cycle Hormones:
When is LH highest?
When is basal body temp highest?
When is estrogen lowest?
Electron Transport Chain Products and Reactants
Reactants: O2, FADH2, NADH
Products: H2O and 32 ATPs! (and 10 NAD+ and 2 FAD)
Glycolysis
Energy Input Phase (Net 2 ATP)
Glycolysis Enzymes
Hexokinase
Phosphoglucose isomerase
PFK-1
aldolase
Triose phosphate isomerase
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase
Phosphoglycerate kinase
Phosphoglycerate mutase
Enolase
Pyruvate kinase
H = Helen
P = Paints
P = Pictures
A = Along
T = The Training
G = Grounds
P = Praying
P = People
E = Enjoy
P = Paintings
Kreb’s Cycle Mnemonic
Cellular Respiration Overview:
Where does Glycolysis take place?
Where does the CAC take place?
Where does ETC take place?
B Cells (Lymphocytes)
Mature Bone Marrow
Humoral Response System
Recognize Antigens on Surfaces of Viruses and Bacteria
Secrete Antibodies
Make up of 20% of lymphocytes
DON’T act against tumors or transplants
Defend against bacteria and viruses in bloodstream or lymph
T Cells (Lymphocytes)
Mature in Thymus
Recognize viral antigens on the outsides of infected cells
Cell-mediated immunity
80% of blood lymphocytes
Act against tumor cells and transplants
Killer T Cells (Cytotoxic Cells) bind to and kill infected cells
Sterol definition and structure
How Many Rings?
How many Hydroxyl groups?
Sterols, also known as steroid alcohols, are a subgroup of the steroids and an important class of organic molecules. They are a type of lipid.
Lacunae Definition
In the study of anatomy, a lacuna is a hollowed-out place or a cavity within a bone. In Latin, lacuna means “pit or hole,” and its plural is lacunae.
Epithelia
How are they held together (3 ways)?
Epithelia are a sheet of cells that covers most of the body surfaces, forms the functional unit of secretory glands and line the inner surface of blood vessels.
Epithelia perform a wide variety of functions and adopt different cellular arrangements and structure to accomplish these functions.
Epithelial cells are held together by tight junctions, adhering junction and desmosomes and attach to a specialized form of extracellular matrix called the basement membrane.
Lumen Definition
In biology, a lumen is the inside space of a tubular structure, such as an artery or intestine. It comes from Latin lumen, meaning ‘an opening’. It can refer to: The interior of a vessel, such as the central space in an artery, vein or capillary through which blood flows.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
a network of membranous tubules within the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell, continuous with the nuclear membrane. It usually has ribosomes attached and is involved in protein and lipid synthesis.
Golgi Apparatus
It has been likened to the cell’s post office. A major function is the modifying, sorting and packaging of proteins for secretion. It is also involved in the transport of lipids around the cell, and the creation of lysosomes.
Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system includes all the nerves in the body that lie outside of the spinal cord and the brain. These nerves carry information to and from the central nervous system to provide complex body functions. Sensory cells are involved in taking information from the periphery to the central nervous system.
Autonomic Nervous System
Virus Components
All viruses contain the following two components: 1) a nucleic acid genome and 2) a protein capsid that covers the genome. Together this is called the nucleocapsid. In addition, many animal viruses contain a 3) lipid envelope. The entire intact virus is called the virion.
Stages of Embryogenesis
mRNA
Messenger RNA is a large family of RNA molecules that convey genetic information from DNA to the ribosome, where they specify the amino acid sequence of the protein products of gene expression.
tRNA
Transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA) is a type of RNA molecule that helps decode a messenger RNA (mRNA) sequence into a protein. tRNAs function at specific sites in the ribosome during translation, which is a process that synthesizes a protein from an mRNA molecule.
Acetylcholine (Ach) Functions
The most abundant neurotransmitter:
Like mailpersons who can both deliver and pick up envelopes and packages, acetylcholine functions in the peripheral nervous system and central nervous system both as an activator and inhibitor. In the peripheral nervous system, it causes skeletal muscles to contract. In the central nervous system, it inhibits the activation of the cholinergic system.
Acetylcholine plays an important role in the signal of muscle movement, sensation of pain, learning and memory formation, the regulation of the endocrine system and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep cycles
Type I Restriction Enzymes
Where do they cut DNA?
Type I enzymes are complex, multisubunit, combination restriction-and-modification enzymes that cut DNA at random far from their recognition sequences.
Active vs Passive Immunity
(Acquired Immunity)
Tight Junctions
Tight junctions are a type of cell-cell junction found in epithelia that forms a barrier that is impermeable to the majority of soluble molecules between the two sides of the epithelium.
Gap Junctions
Gap junctions are a specialized intercellular connection between a multitude of animal cell-types. They directly connect the cytoplasm of two cells, which allows various molecules, ions and electrical impulses to directly pass through a regulated gate between cells.
Competitive, Noncompetitive, and Uncompetitive
Lineweaver-Burk Plots
Km and Vmax effect for each type
Granulocytic Cells
Three Types
Granulocytes are a type of white blood cell that has small granules. These granules contain proteins. The specific types of granulocytes are neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.
Mastocytes are also granulocytes
Afferent vs. Efferent
SAME DAVE
Afferent=In
Efferent=Out
Sensory Afferent
Motor Efferent
Dorsal Afferent
Ventral Efferent
Zymogen
an inactive substance which is converted into an enzyme when activated by another enzyme.
Smooth Muscle
Involuntary
Nonstriated
Single Nucleus
Tapered
Cardiac Muscle
Involuntary
Striated
Single Nucleus
Branched
Skeletal Muscle
Voluntary
Striated
Multinucleated
Non branched
Sarcomere Contraction:
Z band becomes ____
I band becomes ____
A band width _____
Myogenic Definition
The myogenic mechanism is how arteries and arterioles react to an increase or decrease of blood pressure to keep the blood flow within the blood vessel constant. Myogenic response refers to a contraction initiated by the myocyte itself instead of an outside occurrence or stimulus such as nerve innervation.
Pyloric Sphincter
The pyloric sphincter is a band of smooth muscle at the junction between the pylorus of the stomach and the duodenum of the small intestine.
Cardiac Sphincter
the somewhat thickened muscular ring surrounding the opening between the esophagus and the stomach.
Large Intestine Components
(In order)
the cecum, the colon, the rectum, and the anus.
Small Intestine Components
the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
Chyme
Chyme or chymus is the semi-fluid mass of partly digested food that is expelled by the stomach, through the pyloric valve, into the duodenum.
Trypsin
Trypsin is an enzyme that helps us digest protein. In the small intestine, trypsin breaks down proteins, continuing the process of digestion that began in the stomach.
Pepsin
Pepsin is an endopeptidase that breaks down proteins into smaller amino acids. It is produced in the chief cells of the stomach lining
Calcitonin
a hormone that is produced in humans by the parafollicular cells (commonly known as C-cells) of the thyroid gland. Calcitonin is involved in helping to regulate levels of calcium and phosphate in the blood, opposing the action of parathyroid hormone.
Parathyroid gets rid of Ca2+ from the bones and sends it to the bloodstream.
Calcitonin will tone up the bones by depositing Ca2+ from the bloodstream into the bones.
Goldman Equation
Thrombin
Thrombin is the principal enzyme of hemostasis. It catalyzes the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin and activates procoagulant factors V, VIII, XI, and XIII. Additionally, when bound to thrombomodulin, it activates protein C, an anticoagulant zymogen.
Microfilaments
MHC1 vs. MHC2
MHC I glycoproteins are present in all nucleated cells.
MHC II glycoproteins are only present on specialized antigen-presenting cells (APCs), including macrophages that engulf foreign particles such as bacteria, dendritic cells that present antigen to T cells, and B cells that produce antibodies.
Partial Double Bond Character of Peptide Bonds
The peptide bond is a stable covalent bond and is said to be a rigid planar bond because it has a partial double bond character. The evidence that shows this partial double bond character is from the length of the bond.
Umbilical Vein
Carries oxygenated blood from the placenta into the growing fetus.
Umbilical Arteries
carry deoxygenated, nutrient-depleted blood from the fetus to the placenta
Catecholamines
hormones made by your adrenal glands, which are located on top of your kidneys. Examples include dopamine; norepinephrine; and epinephrine (this used to be called adrenalin or adrenaline)
Macrophages
Macrophages initiate phagocytosis by mannose receptors, scavenger receptors, Fcγ receptors and complement receptors 1, 3 and 4. Macrophages are long-lived and can continue phagocytosis by forming new lysosomes.
Signal Transduction Pathways
The ligand that triggers the cascade never _____________.
Signal transduction pathways convert extracellular stimuli into specific cellular responses. Typically, signal transduction begins with a signal to a receptor and ends with a change in cell function. Sometimes, there is a cascade of signals within the cell. With each step of the cascade, the signal can be amplified, so a small signal can result in a large response
The ligand that triggers the cascade never enters the cell.
Kinase
a kinase is an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of phosphate groups from high-energy, phosphate-donating molecules to specific substrates. This process is known as phosphorylation.
i.e Kinase phosphorylates
Fatty Acid Synthesis Steps
What’s the rate-limiting step?
Location: cytosol of cell
1-Citrate leaves mitochondrial matrix, crosses double membrane layers, to cytosol
2-Citrate converted to acetyl CoA + OAA via enzyme citrate lyase
3-Acetyl CoA (2C) gets converted to malonyl CoA (3C) via enzyme ACC (acetyl CoA carboxylase) Rate Limiting Step
4-Malonyl CoA gets lengthened 2 C at a time via enzyme fatty acid synthase
5-Regulation: high insulin triggers fatty acid synthesis
6-Fatty acid + glycerol = triglycerides (stored in adipocyte cells)
Proximal Convoluted Tube
The main purpose of the PCT is to “Dump the HUNK” Hunk = Hydrogen Ions, Urea, NH3 (ammonia), and K+ ions.
The filtrate enters Bowman’s capsule and then flows into the proximal convoluted tubule, where virtually all glucose, amino acids, and other important organic molecules are reabsorbed via active transport.
Excretion and Reabsorption
G Proteins
also known as guanine nucleotide-binding proteins, are a family of proteins that act as molecular switches inside cells, and are involved in transmitting signals from a variety of stimuli outside a cell to its interior.
Flavoproteins
Flavoproteins are a class of oxidizing enzymes containing as electron acceptor flavin–adenine dinucleotide (FAD), which is an electron carrier similar to NAD in its action.
Act as electron carriers in ETC (mitochondria) and chloroplasts.
Membrane Spanning Domain
The hydrophobic interior of the phospholipid bilayer.
Glucogenic vs Ketogenic
A ketogenic amino acid is an amino acid that can be degraded directly into acetyl-CoA, which is the precursor of ketone bodies and “myelin, especially during early development, when brain myelin synthesis is extremely high.” This is in contrast to the glucogenic amino acids, which are converted into glucose.
In humans, two amino acids are exclusively ketogenic:
(remembered as all the “L” amino acids)
Leucine
Lysine
In humans, five amino acids are both ketogenic and glucogenic:
(remembered by the useful mnemonic “PITTT” or “FITTT”, and includes all the aromatic amino acids)
Phenylalanine (abbreviated Phe or F, in contrast to Proline which is Pro or P, based on their respective pronunciations)
Isoleucine
Threonine (some authors don’t recognize it as a ketogenic amino acid)
Tryptophan
Tyrosine
In humans, the remaining thirteen amino acids are exclusively glucogenic (i.e. are not ketogenic).
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the pathway for converting noncarbohydrate precursors into glucose. The main routes of entry into gluconeogenesis are through pyruvate, oxaloacetate, or dihydroxyacetone phosphate. Most tissues do not have the ability to carry out gluconeogenesis. Gluconeogenesis takes place mainly in the liver and to a lesser degree in the cortex of the kidney.
Shine-Dalgarno Sequence
The Shine-Dalgarno (SD) Sequence is a ribosomal binding site in bacterial and archaeal messenger RNA, generally located around 8 bases upstream of the start codon AUG. The RNA sequence helps recruit the ribosome to the messenger RNA (mRNA) to initiate protein synthesis by aligning the ribosome with the start codon.
Determining the Charge on an AA
N-Terminus and C-Terminus
Where are new AA residues added?
In the molecule of a peptide, the amino acid residue on one end has an amine group on the alpha carbon. This amino acid residue is called the N-terminal of the peptide. The amino acid residue on the other end has a carboxylic acid group on the alpha carbon. This amino acid is called the C-terminal.
New AA residues are added to the C-terminal side.
Which Carbon in Deoxyribose is Deoxygenated?
2’
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
What’s the end result?
Renin-angiotensin pathway: Kidney (JGA cells) release renin, triggers formation of angiotensin II, which stimulates aldosterone release, the end result is to raise blood pressure
T Tubules
T-tubule = extension of the muscle cell membrane that runs deep into the cell, so that action potential can reach there.
Glucose Structure
Chemical formula?
Which OH group(s) point(s) to the left?
Alpha vs Beta-Glycosidic Linkage
Ass down Boobs up.
Compound 3 is Alpha
Compound 5 is Beta
Cellulose has beta-glycosidic linkages
Erythrocytes
Do they contain mitochondria?
a red blood cell that (in humans) is typically a biconcave disc without a nucleus. Erythrocytes contain the pigment hemoglobin, which imparts the red color to blood, and transport oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the tissues.
Do not contain mitochondria
Pyrimidines vs. Purines
Phosphorylation
Give a biological example
Phosphorylation is the chemical addition of a phosphoryl group (PO3-) to an organic molecule. The removal of a phosphoryl group is called dephosphorylation. Both phosphorylation and dephosphorylation are carried out by enzymes (e.g., kinases, phosphotransferases).
Examples include the addition of phosphate to glucose to produce glucose monophosphate and the addition of phosphate to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to form adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Molecular Weight of dNMPs
Vasopressin
Vasopressin, also called antidiuretic hormone (ADH), arginine vasopressin (AVP) or argipressin, is a hormone synthesized as a peptide prohormone in neurons in the hypothalamus, and is converted to AVP.
