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BIO/BIOCHEM Flashcards

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1
Q

A positive cooperative protein would have ____.

A

A hill coefficient greater than 1

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2
Q

Macrophages

A

Eat organisms

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3
Q

Basophils

A

Release histamine => immune response (allergy mostly)

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4
Q

neutrophils

A

Kill/eat bacteria

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5
Q

natural killer cells

A

Release toxins to destroy virus infested

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6
Q

Mast cell

A

Release histamine for allergic reaction

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7
Q

Dendritic cell

A

Presents antigen to activate other immune cells

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8
Q

Bulbourethral glands

A

secrete thick and alkaline mucus

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9
Q

Prostate glands

A

Prevent coagulation of sperm in vagina

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10
Q

Seminal glands

A

Largest component of the seminal fluid

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11
Q

Lipid droplets from intestine into bloodstream pathway

A

Interstitial fluid => lymph capillaries => lymph vessel => lymph duct => vein

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12
Q

Hydrochloric acid is made by which cell in de stomach

A

Parietal

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13
Q

G-cells secrete

A

Gastrin to regulate secretion of HCl

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14
Q

Chief cells

A

Secretes pepsinogen => pepsin (polypeptide into smaller fragments)

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15
Q

Mucous cells

A

Secrete mucus and bicarbonate to protect the stomach

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16
Q

ADH

A

Inserts aquaporin to make the collecting duct more permeable for water => increase fluid

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17
Q

What digests triglyceride?

A

Lingual lipase (to monoglyceride)

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18
Q

How can pyruvate be converted into OAA?

A

pyruvate carboxylase

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19
Q

Digestion of carbs/

A

Salivary amylase (to shorter and smaller things)

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20
Q

Can aspartate and malate be converted into OAA?

A

Yes, via transaminase and malate DH, respectively

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21
Q

Reducing SDS or anything

A

Cuts de disulfide bonds (result in multiple bands)

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22
Q

Palmitic acid

A

Saturated fatty acid (just contains carboxylic acid)

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23
Q

Phosphatidylserine

A
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24
Q

Sphingomyelin

A
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25
Q

Net product of Glycolysis

A

2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, 2 NADH

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26
Q

Fate of pyruvate after Glycolysis

A

1.) Turned into Acetyl-CoA via Pyruvate DH

2.) Turn into lactate (Lactate DH)

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27
Q

Pentose Phosphate Pathway

A

Contains some unique enzymes that can be confused

  1. G6P DH: produces NADPH and 6PG
  2. 6PG DH: produces NADPH and Ribulose-5-phosphate (nucleotide)
  3. Ribulose-5-phosphate => F6P (into glycolysis)
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28
Q

Importance of NADPH

A

Useful for cholesterol synthesis, FA synthesis, and protection against ROS

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29
Q

Free anomeric carbon

A

A carbon that is not part of the glycosidic linkage, and contains at least one hydroxide group

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30
Q

The only non-reducing sugar is

A

sucrose

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31
Q

A sugar without a hemiacetal is

A

non-reducing sugar

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32
Q

The hook

A

Connects basal body to the filament; transmits torque, but does not do the rotation

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33
Q

Basal body

A

Acts a rotor

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34
Q

Somatic neuron

A

involves a skeletal muscle

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35
Q

Autonomic neuron

A

Involves everything but the skeletal muscle

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36
Q

Transportation of short FA into mitochondria

A

Just gets in there

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37
Q

Transportation of long FA into mitochondria

A

activated by ACS

put carnitine on it to make it able to translocate into the mitochondria

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38
Q

Transamination reaction

A

part of protein catabolism

Transfers NH3 from AA to a-ketogluterate => L-glutamate

Deamination of glutamate => ammonia => urea cycle

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39
Q

Glucogenic AA

A

Conversion into pyruvate or TCA intermediates

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40
Q

Ketogenic AA

A

Conversion directly into acetyl-CoA and/or FA or Kentone bodies

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41
Q

glycogenolysis

A

Conversion of Glycogen into G6P

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42
Q

Can muscle make G6P into glucose?

A

no, it lacks the glucose-6-phosphatase. Can’t release it into the blood stream

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43
Q

Steps of muscle contraction

A
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44
Q

exocrine glands

A

Secretions released onto the exterior body surface (skin, intestine, …)

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45
Q

parts of TCA that produces energy carriers

A
  1. Isocitrate => a-ketogluterate (NADH)
  2. a-ketogluterate => succinyl-CoA (NADH)
  3. Succinyl-CoA => succinate (GTP)
  4. succinate => fumarate (FADH2)
  5. malate => OAA (NADH)
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46
Q

Difference between DNA sequencing and Southern Blot

A

DNA sequencing is finding the entire sequence of DNA

Southern blot is trying to find a particular seq

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47
Q

vasoconstriction

A

decreases diameter/blood flow

increases blood pressure

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48
Q

Digestion of lipids in the small intestine

A

Emulsification (mechanical) via bile salts

hydrolysis (chemical) via pancreatic lipase

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49
Q

pyloric sphincter

A

lower sphincter of the stomach

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50
Q

Adrenal medulla secretes …

A

catecholamines; short-term hormones

epinephrine and norepinephrine

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51
Q

Adrenal cortex secretes

A

glucocorticoids (cortisol) and mineralcorticoids (aldosterone)

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52
Q

cortisol function

A

increase blood-glucose levels

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53
Q

Why is posterior pituitary special?

A

neural stalk from the hypothalamus secretes hormones at that location to the blood

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54
Q

CCK hormone

A

stimulates pancreatic secretions + gallbladder contraction

Induces satiety

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55
Q

Transverse tubule

A

leads to rapid + complete depolarization of muscle fiber

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56
Q

motor endplate

A

facilitates transmission btw muscle cells

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57
Q

pyruvate decarboxylase

A

pyruvate => acetaldehyde (we don’t do dis)

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58
Q

epiphyses

A

round ends covered by articular cartilage

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59
Q

diaphysis

A

hollow shaft covered by bone marrow

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60
Q

metaphyses

A

where epiphyses and diaphysis meet (serves as site of longitudinal growth)

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61
Q

periosteum

A

covers and protects long bones

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62
Q

Chondrocytes

A

make up cartilage that provides support and cushioning

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63
Q

lamellae

A

concentric rings of bone matrix

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64
Q

Haversian and Volkmann canals

A

runs vertically and horizontally, respectively

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65
Q

canaliculi

A

channels that allow for waste exchange and nutrient delivery

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66
Q

lacunae

A

mitotically inactive sites

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67
Q

Types of connective tissue

A

Bone, blood, fat, tendon/ligament/cartilage

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68
Q

steroid hormone synthesis

A

isoprene => monoterpene => squalene => chloesterol

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69
Q

Vitamin D

A

Synthesized in response to sunlight; converted to calcitriol

Stimulates absorption of calcium

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70
Q

Small intestine structures

A

Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum

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71
Q

Large intestine structures

A

Cecum
Colon
Rectum

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72
Q

Right ventricle has ____ compared to the left ventricle

A

Thinner walls

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73
Q

high-performance liquid chromatography

A

Separates via polarity; contains hydrophobic/philic beads

For smaller molecules

If it can stick to the column, then it elutes slower

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74
Q

The skin function

A

Protection
Maintain body OSMolarity
Regulation of homeostasis

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75
Q

Keratin

A

Protection against injury to skin

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76
Q

Endothelial cells

A

Lines interior of cardiovascular system

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77
Q

Do viruses have a phospholipid bilayer

A

Sometimes. They can be enveloped (have the bilayer) or nonenveloped

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78
Q

Protozoan

A

Single-celled eukaryotic organism

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79
Q

Capillary Oncotic pressure

A

Pulling force that causes fluid to enter capillaries

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80
Q

Capillary hydrostatic pressure

A

Pushing force that leads to fluids exit capillaries

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81
Q

Interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure

A

Pushing force that cause fluid to enter capillaries

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82
Q

Fast-twitch muscle fibers

A

Achieve more rapid contraction than slow-twitch; hydrolysis ATP faster

Less mitochondria

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83
Q

Slow-twitch muscle fibers

A

Contracts slower rate; more fatigue resistant

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84
Q

Type 2x fibers

A

Rely on only glycolysis for ATP production

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85
Q

Type 2A fibers

A

Rely on both oxidative and nonoxidative (anaerobic) to ATP production; more susceptible to fatigue

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86
Q

Hemoglobin have

A

R and T state => cooperatively

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87
Q

R state

A

Relaxed state => high oxygen affinity

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88
Q

T state

A

Tense state => low oxygen affinity

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89
Q

Hermatocrit

A

RVC volume as percentage of total blood volume

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90
Q

Long intestine mostly absorb

A

Salt and water

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91
Q

Parallel evolution

A

When two more closely related species continue to evolve the same characteristics in similar environments

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92
Q

Sucrose

A

glucose + fructose (alpha)

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93
Q

Lactose

A

Glucose + Galactose (beta)

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94
Q

Maltose

A

Glucose + Glucose (alpha)

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95
Q

Absolute refractory period

A

Consistent of depolarization + repolarization (no new stimulus can occur here)

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96
Q

Relative refractory period

A

New stimulus can occur here

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97
Q

Does the equilibrium constant change with the addition of a catalyst

A

No. See also that Gibbs also doesn’t change, which is also related to Keq

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98
Q

Phosphorolysis

A

Breaking apart molecule using inorganic phosphate

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99
Q

Adding a negative charge would impact the pI how?

A

It would decrease it

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100
Q

A low pKa is a

A

Strong acid

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101
Q

pH < pI

A

protonated

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102
Q

Meaning of Cardiac Output

A

Volume of blood pumped by heart per unit time

CO = HR (Heart rate) * SV (Stroke volume)

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103
Q

Glycerol can be turned into _____.

A

DHAP in the glycolysis pathway

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104
Q

Gram positive

A

Thick wall of peptidoglycan + lipoteichoic wall

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105
Q

Gram negative

A

Thin wall of peptidoglycan + 2 layers of phospholipid and lipopolysaccharide

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106
Q

Microfilaments

A

Made up of actin

Role in cytokinesis (cleavage furrow)

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107
Q

Microtubule

A

Hollow polymer of tubulin protein

Provides pathways for kinesis/dynein

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108
Q

Kinetochores

A

Appears at the centrosome on the centromere; attachment points

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109
Q

FSH (for males)

A

Sertoli cell => sperm maturation

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110
Q

LH (for males)

A

Interstitial cells => testosterone

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111
Q

Estrogen is secreted in response to _____.

A

FSH

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112
Q

Progesterone is secreted in response to _____.

A

LH

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113
Q

FSH (female)

A

maintenance of female reproductive system + secondary characteristics

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114
Q

LH (female)

A

development + maintenance of endometrium

Surge leads to ovulation

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115
Q

3 phases of menstrual cycle

A

Follicular
Ovulation
Luteal

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116
Q

Follicular Phase

A

Increase in GnRH due to decrease in estro/prog

Increase in FSH (follicular cells) + LH (make androgens)

Increase in Estrogen => decrease in GnRH

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117
Q

Ovulation phase

A

Estrogen spike => GnRH increase => increase in LH and FSH

Leads to follicle rupture => release secondary oocyte

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118
Q

Luteal Phase

A

Rupture follicle => corpus luteum

C.L. => progesterone => decrease in GnRh, FSH, and LH

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119
Q

Egg development

A

Fertilized egg => 2-cell to 16-cell => morula => blastula => gastrula => neurulation

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120
Q

Ectoderm develops into

A

Everything that makes you attractive (looks, intelligence)

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121
Q

Endoderm develops into

A

Epithelial lining

Exocrine glands (liver, pancreas, …)

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122
Q

Mesoderm develops into

A

Develops muscular and connective tissue (muscular, circulatory, excretory)

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123
Q

Axon

A

Long appendage where action potential travels

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124
Q

Axon hillock

A

Cell body transition to axon

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125
Q

Stroke Volume

A

Volume of blood pumped per beat

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126
Q

Osmotic vs oncotic pressure

A

Same thing, it’s just that most of osmotic pressure is attributed to plasma protein

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127
Q

Interferons

A

Proteins that prevent viral replication

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128
Q

Desmosomes

A

Anchors adjacent cells by anchoring to cytoskeletons

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129
Q

Chylomicron

A

Transport from intestine to tissues

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130
Q

VLDL

A

Transport from liver to tissues

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131
Q

LDL

A

Cholesterol to cells

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132
Q

IDL

A

Picks up cholesterol ester from HDL => LDL

By liver

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133
Q

HDL

A

Picks up cholesterol accumulate in blood vessels

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134
Q

Low Km

A

High affinity

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135
Q

Retroviruses require ….

A

Reverse transcriptase to make RNA -> cDNA

Integrase to integrate cDNA into host DNA

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136
Q

Both RNA and DNA polymerases bind to the promoter

A

No, only RNA polymerase. DNA binds to primer-template junction

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137
Q

+ sense virus

A

Lytic

Use of RNA as genetic material => direct translation into proteins

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138
Q

negative sense virus

A

Lytic

Use of RNA as genetic material (can’t be translated directly) => RNA replicase to positive sense => translation of protein

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139
Q

DNA virus

A

Lysogenic

viral DNA => nucleus => incorporated into host DNA

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140
Q

Ganglioside

A
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141
Q

Cerebroside

A
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142
Q

Glycerophospholipid

A
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143
Q

Ceramide

A

Water retention on skin

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144
Q

Sphingolipid

A
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145
Q

Hydroxyl groups will face which way (?) on the Haworth projection IF the Fischer projection depicts them pointing right

A

Down

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146
Q

Gated channels

A

Bind a ligand => open to allow specific ions to pass

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147
Q

A common Palindromic sequence (example)

A

5’-AAGCT-3’

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148
Q

If it has the word integrase when referring to a virus, then

A

It is a retrovirus.

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149
Q

Retroviruses are always

A

Single-stranded RNA

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150
Q

Thalamus function

A

Relay station for info + plays a role in memory

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151
Q

A monoterpene contains

A

2 isoprene units

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152
Q

Isoprene unit

A
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153
Q

Steroid hormones

A

Produced by gonads/adrenal cortex

Binds directly to DNA + needs a carrier (albumin)

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154
Q

Amino-acid derivative hormones

A

Anything with an -ine

Bind to GPCR

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155
Q

Tropic hormones

A

Causes release of another hormone

156
Q

Direct hormone

A

Acts directly on the tissue

157
Q

Type I Diabetes

A

Autoimmune destruction of the b-cells in pancreas

158
Q

Inhalation

A

Contraction of diaphragm

159
Q

Exhalation

A

Relaxation of diaphragm

160
Q

Intrapleural space

A

Helps to lubricate btwn two pleural surfaces

161
Q

Total Lung Capacity

A

Maximum volume of air in the lungs

162
Q

Residual Volume

A

Volume of air remaining in lungs when exhaled

163
Q

Vital Capacity

A

TLC - RV

164
Q

Tidal volume

A

Volume of air inhaled/exhaled in a normal breath

165
Q

Expiratory reserve volume

A

Volume of additional air forcibly exhaled

166
Q

Inspiratory reserve volume

A

Volume of additional air forcibly inhaled

167
Q

Hypercabia

A

Increase in CO2 in the blood

168
Q

Cells in the Epidermis

A

Melanocytes
Langerhans cells

169
Q

What is in the dermis

A

Sweat gland, blood vessels, and hair

Sensory receptors located here

170
Q

Hypodermis

A

Contains fat and fibrous tissue

171
Q

Cardiac muscles are

A

Uninucleated with intercalated discs (gap junctions)

172
Q

Smooth muscles

A

Nonstriated under autonomic control

173
Q

Skeletal muslces

A

Striated under somatic control

Separated into slow and fast twitch fibers

174
Q

Sacromere

A

Basic unit of striated muscle; made of thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments

175
Q

Mendel’s first law of segregation

A

Centers around separation of homologous chromosomes

176
Q

Mendel’s second law: independent assortment

A

Inheritance of one gene does not impact inheritance of another

177
Q

Penetrance

A

Proportion of individual that carry allele actually express phenotype

178
Q

transposons

A

Insert/remove themselves from DNA

179
Q

punctuated equilibrium

A

Change in species occur in rapid bursts

180
Q

Variable expressivity

A

single genotype produces multiple different phenotypes

181
Q

In blood, plasma layer consists of

A

Albumin, hormones, electrolytes, etc

182
Q

Calcitonin

A

“Tones” down [Ca] in the blood.

Secreted by thyroid gland

Antagonistic to PTH

183
Q

Ghrelin vs Leptin

A

Grehlin involves hunger (growling stomach)

Leptin involves satiety

184
Q

Some structures of Steroid hormones (low yield)

A
185
Q

Vitamin C is another name for

A

Ascorbic acid

186
Q

Northern blot

A

Separates specific RNA molecules according to size

187
Q

Coagulation cascade (first few steps)

A

Prothrombin => thrombin => fibrin

Happens when blood vessel is damaged, platelets clog the vessel.

Damaged endothelial => coagulation cascade

188
Q

Fat soluble Vitamins

A

DAKE

189
Q

Vitamin A structure

A
190
Q

Vitamin B structure

A
191
Q

Vitamin C structure

A
192
Q

Vitamin D structure

A
193
Q

Feeding into Krebs cycle

A
194
Q

Krebs cycle structures

A
195
Q

Peptide hormone vs amino-acid derived hormone

A

Peptide hormone is made of peptide bonds => more residues than amino-acid derived

196
Q

Something special about quaternary structure is that

A

They display cooperativity

197
Q

Uncompetitive

A

Reduces both Vmax and Km to the same extent

198
Q

Noncompetitive

A

Reduces only the Vmax

199
Q

FA synthesis (just be familiar with the names + steps)

A
200
Q

Iodine is necessary for

A

Synthesis of thyroid hormone

201
Q

Calcitriol or Vitamin D is responsible for

A

Increasing blood-calcium levels

202
Q

Baseline

A

Usually an initial measurement before the actual experiment

203
Q

cofactor and coenzymes are

A

Required for enzyme activity

204
Q

Pulmonary arteries

A

Go from the right ventricle into the lungs

205
Q

Superior/Inferior vena cava

A

Blood from the rest of the body to the right atrium

206
Q

How to calculate the net change in charge of an AA

A
207
Q

What is the limiting step in the FA oxidation

A

Carnitine palmitoyltransferase I

208
Q

Difference between the FA synthesis and oxidation enzymes

A

FA synthesis contain ACP, while FA oxidation contains DH

209
Q

If you increase more solutes inside the blood vessels (ex: albumin), then

A

you increase the oncotic pressure

210
Q

xylulose

A
211
Q

Can sphingolipids be hydrolyzed to produce FA

A

Nope, these are structural lipids

212
Q

IF blood produces A-antigen, then

A

it is a type A blood

213
Q

Uterus

A

protects/nourishes developing embryo and fetus

Contains myometrium

214
Q

Difference between Sex-linked and autosomal

A

Sex-linked is males expressing the recessive gene at a higher rate than females

Autosomal is passed thru organism with inheritance (Similar proportion btw)

215
Q

How to solve a 4x4 Punnett square

A

Separate them into two Punnett squares with their own distinct allele

Andddd multiply those proportions

216
Q

crossing over is also known as

A

recombination

217
Q

A pull-down assay is

A

Used to determine the physical interactions between two or more proteins

218
Q

Signal sequence domain

A

Found in proteins destined for secretion

219
Q

Nuclear factors

A

Are transcription factors that can regulate gene expression

220
Q

Dimerization typically occur in

A

hydrophobic areas

221
Q

Template strand

A

Sequence of DNA is copied from for mRNA production

Called antisense strand

222
Q

TCA

A
223
Q

Reverse transcriptase

A

conversion of a single-stranded RNA to double-stranded DNA

224
Q

RNA polymerases

A

Synthesize mRNA from DNA template

225
Q

Which are both ketogenic and glucogenic amino acids

A

FITTT

Phenylalanice
Isoleucine
Tryptophan
Threonine
Tyrosine

226
Q

Which amino acids are ketogenic?

A

Leucine

Lysine

227
Q

Which amino acids are glucogenic?

A

Everything else (besides, FITTT, LL)

228
Q

are promoters and enhancers sequences in every cell, despite the protein not being expressed?

A

Yes.

229
Q

TCA mnemonic

A

Can I Keep Selling Sex For Money, Officer?

230
Q

Fumarate structure

A
231
Q

succinate structure

A
232
Q

malate structure

A
233
Q

OAA structure

A
234
Q

Nucleotide Excision Repair is used for

A

Against T-T dimers

Cut and paste process

235
Q

Base Excision repair

A

Used for Cysotine deamination

Produces AP site

236
Q

hnRNA is

A

turns into mRNA via post-transcriptional modifications

237
Q

Glycerol-3-P DH

A

Turns DHAP (from glycolysis) to Glycerol-3-P (used for TGL synthesis and electron shuttle)

238
Q

PEPCK

A

Converts OAA to PEP (requires GTP)

239
Q

Glycerol-3-phosphate shuttle

A

Centers around NADH and its transfer of electrons to the FAD+ => FADH2 to drop it off at Q => QH2

240
Q

Negative selection involves

A

Elimination of developing lymphocytes that bind strongly to self-antigens

241
Q

Positive selection involves

A

Effective bind to “self” MHC molecule => will not undergo apoptosis

242
Q

Can liver impact the oncotic pressure of the capillaries?

A

Yes it can. It has the potential to secrete plasma proteins/clotting factors => impact pressure

243
Q

To calculate the frequency of the heterozygous mutation for Hardy-Weinberg

A

2 p * q, not pq

244
Q

Should you count the initial (not purified yet) for the total yield?

A

Nope, don’t do it

245
Q

What does liver secrete into the lumen

A

bile

246
Q

Cecum comes

A

Before the colon.

Rectum comes after the colon

247
Q

Do we use denaturing agents for PAGE when it comes to DNA

A

No, the charge is all the same so

248
Q

Similar amino acid sequences will

A

Fold similarly

249
Q

MHC I is

A

Present on every cell; tells CTLs and NKs to initiate apoptosis

250
Q

MHC II

A

Present only on specialized cells (dendritic/macrophage); they present this to the Helper T cells that signal to B-cells to initiate antibody production

251
Q

Spleen

A

filters, stores, and destroys RBC.

Active B cells found here

252
Q

Lymph nodes

A

Monitor lymph for any antigen + activate lymphocytes on detection

253
Q

Complement protein

A

Proteins that increase effectiveness of antibodies by recruiting phagocytes

254
Q

How does debranching enzyme remove glucose from branch points?

A

Hydrolysis.

Phosphorylation is for removing linear

255
Q

(T/F) Liver produces Ketone bodies

A

True

256
Q

If error bars do not overlap, then

A

the points are significant

257
Q

Egg development

A

Oogonium (di) => primary oocyte (di) => secondary oocyte (ha) => ovum (ha)

258
Q

Prostaglandins

A

Produce local inflammatory responses

259
Q

Step 1 of Glycolysis

A

Hexokinase

Conversion of Glucose to G6P

260
Q

Step 2 of glycolysis

A

Phosphoglucoisomerase

G6P to F6P

261
Q

Step 3 of Glycolysis

A

Phosphofructokinase

F6P to F-1,6BP

262
Q

Step 4/5 of Glycolysis

A

Aldolase/Isomerase

F-1,6BP to GAP
DHAP to GAP

263
Q

Step 6 of Glycolysis

A

GAP DH

GAP to 1,3 BPG

264
Q

Step 7 of Glycolysis

A

Phosphoglycerate Kinase

1,3 BPG to 3PG

265
Q

Step 8 of Glycolysis

A

Phosphoglyceromutase

3PG to 2PG

266
Q

Step 9 of Glycolysis

A

Enolase

2 PG to PEP

267
Q

Step 10 of Glycolysis

A

Pyruvate Kinase

PEP to pyruvate

268
Q

Smooth muscle cells help with

A

Vasoconstriction/dilation

They surround the endothelial cells

269
Q

Extracellular space

A

Everything outside the cell

270
Q

Coding strand for the DNA is

A

the exact same as the mRNA sequence.

271
Q

What happens during the “processing” of the pre-mRNA?

A

5’-cap and poly-A tail are added.

272
Q

DNA-histone complex is called

A

Chromatin

273
Q

DNA-histone complex in the closed formation

A

Heterochromatin

274
Q

Acetylating the histone would

A

promotes gene transcription

275
Q

Pharynx is a

A

Cavity, not a tissue

276
Q

During inspiration

A

Contraction of diaphragm
Decrease intrapleural pressure
Elevation of rib cage

277
Q

Cillia

A

hair-like organelles (nasal, muscocillary escalator, phagocytosis)

Removes inhaled particles

278
Q

Glucose is _____ compared to glycogen

A

More soluble

279
Q

Aconitase converts

A

Citrate to cis-aconitate to Isocitrate

Conversion thru an intermediate

280
Q

Co-dominance can be seen when

A

Neither allele is fully dominant

281
Q

Michaelis-Menten assumptions

A

(1) free-ligand approximation
(2) steady state approximation
(3) irreversibility approximation

282
Q

Free-ligand approximation

A

Substrate concentration is constant during reaction

283
Q

Steady-state approximation

A

[ES] remains constant

284
Q

Irreversibility approximation

A

reaction only proceeds in forward direction

285
Q

For michaelis-menten, approximations

A

Only the initial reaction rate is counted

286
Q

Steps of Western-Blot

A
  1. Sample subjected to electrophoresis
  2. Proteins transferred to protein-binding membrane
  3. Addition of blocking proteins
  4. Addition of primary/secondary antibodies
  5. Fluorescence
287
Q

Ceramide

A
288
Q

Sphingosine structure

A
289
Q

Sphingomyelin can contain

A

Either phosphocholine or a phosphoethanolamine group

Contains a primary amine group or (CH3)3 - N group

290
Q

Allosteric enzymes are

A

enzymes that have multiple binding sites

Usually one of them is an active site + allosteric site

291
Q

Covalent modifications are

A

Phosphorylation + Glycosylation

292
Q

How can we determine the primary sequence of AA?

A

Edman degradation

293
Q

Difference between Glycogenesis + Glycogenolysis

A

Process of Making and Breaking Glycogen, respectively.

294
Q

Episome

A

lengths of DNA attached to chromosome of bacteria

295
Q

Where are centrioles in the cell?

A

Near the nucleus

296
Q

Kinetochores

A

Protein-DNA complex to which spindle fibers bind to during mitosis

Not present during G0

297
Q

Proteasomes

A

Degrade ubiquitinated proteins

298
Q

If we added more blood volume and kept the surface area of the blood the same, then

A

The pressure will go up in the blood

299
Q

Type I muscle fiber

A

Slow oxidative (aerobic)

Contains a shit ton of myoglobin/capillaries/mitochondria (appears red)

More for endurance

300
Q

Type 2A muscle fiber

A

Fast oxidative-glycolytic (both)

Medium level of myoglobin/capillaries/mitochondria

Medium-level

301
Q

Type 2x muscle fiber

A

Fast glycolytic

Low level of everything (more for weight lifting)

More for weight-lifting

302
Q

If we were to prevent expression of envelope proteins, we would

A

Prevent production of retroviruses

303
Q

What is the difference between PFK-1 and PFK-2

A

PFK-2 converts F6P to FB2,6P, activating PFK-1

PFK-1 converts F6P to FB1,6P to glycolysis

In a way, they are both related to glycolysis

304
Q

To convert pyruvate to Acetyl-CoA, what do we require

A

NAD+

H-SCoA

305
Q

Special reaction of Aspartate

A

It can be converted to OAA via transamination (this is malate-aspartate shuttle)

306
Q

Right before ovulation, which hormone levels are high?

A

LH, FSH, and Estrogen

307
Q

FSH and LH cause

A

Conversion to corpus luteam, which secretes progesterone

This progesterone thickens endometrium => receptive for implantation

(Luteal phase above)

308
Q

A decrease in FSH/LH would lead to

A

an increase in GnRH => increase in FSH and LH

309
Q

In females, FSH would lead to

A

Stimulation of follicular cells

310
Q

In females, LH would lead to

A

production of sex hormones (androgens) via thea cells

311
Q

FSH makes this one hormone

A

Estrogen by converting androgen

312
Q

An increase in Estrogen

A

Decreases GnRH => decrease in LH and FSH

313
Q

Genetic leakage

A

gene flow from one species to another via hybrid offspring

314
Q

Cathodes are _____ and anodes are _____.

A

Negatively-charged and positively-charged, respectively.

Where they move depends on what they are and where you put them

315
Q

A key component of protein folding is

A

Hydrophobic interactions

316
Q

Compared to cytosine, guanine has

A

more hydrogen bond donors than acceptors (opposite for cytosine)

317
Q

Adenine/thymine have

A

Equal number of hydrogen bond donor/acceptors

318
Q

Cleavage furrow forms when

A

contractile actin begins to pinch the parental cells in two

319
Q

Difference between glycerophospholipid and triglycerides

A

Glycerophospholipids have two FA chains + glycerol, while triglycerides have three + glycerol

320
Q

Bacterial cells perform ETC on

A

their cell membrane.

They don’t need mitochondria to do dis shit

321
Q

imprinted gene

A

Similar expression level between offspring and parent

If parent allele is methylated, then your allele would also be methylated (in other words)

322
Q

hybridization

A

two complementary DNA/RNA produce double stranded

323
Q

Outbreeding

A

Mating with non-relatives

324
Q

Acetyl-CoA carboxylase is the

A

first and rate-limiting step of FA synthesis

325
Q

lipid rafts are

A

primarily made up of either chloesterol/sphingolipids

326
Q

Neural crest cells lead to

A

Peripheral nervous system

327
Q

Lacteals

A

Uptake fat into the lymph

328
Q

Enveloped viruses enter via

A

Endocytosis

329
Q

Diencephalon

A

Thalamus + hypothalamus

330
Q

Brainstem

A

Involuntary function

Medulla, Pons, and Midbrain

331
Q

Cerebrum

A

Higher level mental function

Contains frontal lobe, motor/somatosensory cortex/limbic system

332
Q

superior colliculli

A

visual info

333
Q

Inferior colliculi

A

auditory info

334
Q

FA synthesis

A
335
Q

Complex II in oxidative phosphorylation is

A

Succinate DH

336
Q

ETC

A
337
Q

Beta-oxidation

A
338
Q

Synthase is a

A

Lyase

Breakdown of molecule into two molecules

339
Q

Microtubules are made of _____, while microfilaments are made of ______.

A

Tubulin proteins; actin proteins

340
Q

The first step of using Amino acids for energy is

A

Oxidation via transamination

See Leucine => a-ketogluterate

341
Q

Glycerol can be converted into

A

DHAP using Glycerol kinase

342
Q

Lipolysis is/is not part of fatty acid oxidaiton

A

Is not

343
Q

Palmitoycarnitine is

A

Derived from fat

344
Q

Compared to Short/Medium FA chains, the Long FA chains are activated in the

A

Cytosol.

Short/Medium are activated in the matrix

345
Q

DNA viruses are

A

Similar to the host’s genome, therefore utilize host machinery to make viral components

346
Q

Hypothetically, a +ssRNA virus can

A

be directly translated by ribosomes into proteins.

Most important of these proteins is the viral RNA-polymerase that can transcribe and translate more viral proteins

347
Q

Viruses are ___ for microscope

A

Way too small

348
Q

If a virus replicates through DNA intermediates, then

A

It is a retrovirus. They have a reverse transcriptase

349
Q

The only difference between Archaea and Bacteria is that

A

Only bacteria has the peptidoglycan wall

350
Q

What are siRNA used for

A

Decrease translation of target proteins

351
Q

Cell determination

A

Specification of cell’s fate

352
Q

Cell differentiation

A

Acquisition of unique biochemical/structural features

353
Q

RER is where the protein ___.

A

Undergoes structural modification in the lumen.

354
Q

Signal sequence is found on _____, and is important for ______.

A

mRNA; docking into the RER.

355
Q

RNA polymerases bind to DNA on the ______.

A

Promoter

356
Q

Chemiosmosis

A

Movement of H+ ions down an electrochemical gradient to produce energy (ETC)

357
Q

Myosin binds _____ after ___ bind _____.

A

actin;

troponin binds calcium

358
Q

There are ___ rings in chloesterol

A

4

359
Q

Where does the Glomerular filtrate have the highest concentration?

A

Near the bottom of the Loop of Henle

Medullar portion really

360
Q

During the action potential (depolarization), Na+ ions _____.

A

Move into neuron

361
Q

Transcription factors _____.

A

Bind to DNA on promoter + control rate of transcription

362
Q

A lipid raft is where

A

There is a shit ton of chloesterol + differing levels of everything else lmao

363
Q

The ____ leads to filtration in glomerulus, while __ leads to filtration everywhere else

A

Pressure difference (hydrostatic); countercurrent exchange system

364
Q

(T/F) Enzymes change the primary structure of a protein

A

Nope.

365
Q

(T/F) enzymes can alter pH

A

Yeah, they can.

366
Q

Being highly specific in an assay has to do with ____.

A

measuring just that enzyme

367
Q

Erthrocytes are unique in that

A

They don’t contain a nucleus (so no DNA) or mitochondria

368
Q

What is the endomembrane system

A

Membrane-bound organelles that function to modify/transport proteins

369
Q

Clarthin

A

Involved with endocytosis

370
Q

Cell-cell junctions are comprised of _____.

A

Cell adhesion molecules

371
Q

Desmosomes

A

Binding adjacent cells by anchoring to cytoskeletons

372
Q

Hemi-desmosomes

A

Attach to epithelial cells to underlying structures

373
Q

Cadherins are

A

Calcium dependent cell-adhesion proteins

374
Q

Integrins are

A

Important in cell growth, migration, and immune responses

375
Q

Selectins serve as

A

initial interaction btwn leukocytes + endothelial cells

376
Q

Only arteries have the muscles to vasoconstrict

A

Yes

377
Q

Vasodilation causes a

A

decrease in blood pressure (opposite for vasoconstriction)

378
Q

sesquiterpenes are made up of

triterpenes are made up of

A

3 isoprene units

6 isoprene units

Note: 1 terpene = 2 isoprene w

379
Q

Choline molecule

A
380
Q

De relationship btwn Cerebroside and Ceramide

A
381
Q

Arabinose structure

A
382
Q

xylulose structure

A
383
Q

Most sensory receptors are located in the

A

dermis

384
Q

Action potential of a neuron

A
385
Q

Coding strand/template strand

A
386
Q

Sense vs Antisense strand

A
387
Q

How does reverse transcriptase work

A

MCAT (2 decks)

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