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APRIL MCAT > Bio/Biochem > Flashcards

Bio/Biochem Flashcards

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1
Q

Primary alcohols are oxidized to ______

A

Aldehydes

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2
Q

Secondary alcohols are oxidized into _____

A

Ketones

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3
Q

If the highest priority group in a molecule is an ester, the suffix of the molecule will be:

A

-oate

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4
Q

Enamines and imines can interconvert through:

A

Tautomerization

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5
Q

The aldol reaction produces what?

A

A molecule with a carbonyl group and an alcohol group

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6
Q

An aldol condensation is a two reaction process that includes what?

A

An aldol reaction that combines aldehydes/ketones and then a dehydration reaction

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7
Q

Carboxylic acid derivatives include:

A

Acyl halides, anhydrides, esters, and amides

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8
Q

What is indicative of a transesterification reaction?

A

An ester reacting with an alcohol using an acid or base

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9
Q

What is the relationship between leaving group stability and atomic radius?

A

Leaving group stability increases with atomic radius

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10
Q

How does atomic radius change as you go down the periodic table?

A

Atomic radius increases as you go down the periodic table

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11
Q

What makes a carbon an alpha carbon?

A

An alpha carbon is the first carbon from the carboxyl group carbon

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12
Q

Name the acidic amino acids

A

Aspartic acid
Glutamic acid

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13
Q

Name the basic amino acids

A

Lysine
Arginine
Histidine

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14
Q

What is Histidine’s charge at physiological pH?

A

Uncharged

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15
Q

What is the charge on acidic amino acids at physiological pH?

A

-1

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16
Q

What is the charge on basic amino acids at physiological pH?

A

Arginine and lysine will have a +1 charge

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17
Q

Name all of the amino acids that could hold a charge

A

Aspartic acid, glutamic acid, histidine, arginine, lysine

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18
Q

Explain the SNoW DRoP Mnemonic

A

Southern blots look at DNA
Northern blots look at RNA
Western blots look at Protein

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19
Q

What does a low Km mean?

A

This means that it does not take much substrate to saturate the enzyme, thus indicating a high substrate-enzyme affinity

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20
Q

Explain a competitive inhibitor and its effects on Km and Vmax

A

The inhibitor molecule is similar enough to the substrate that it can bind to the active site to stop it from binding to the substrate. Km will increase because it takes more substrate to saturate, but Vmax will be unchaged.

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21
Q

Explain a noncompetitive inhibitor and its effects on Km and Vmax

A

The inhibitor molecule binds to the enzyme at a location other than the active site (an allosteric site). The substrate can still bind to the enzyme, but the inhibitor changes the shape of the enzyme so it is more difficult to catalyze the reaction. Km will remain unchanged because the substrate can still bind, but Vmax will decrease.

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22
Q

Explain a mixed inhibitor and its effects on Km and Vmax

A

The inhibitor molecule can bind to the enzyme alone or the enzyme-substrate complex, and thus does not prevent the substrate from binding. All mixed inhibitors lower Vmax to some extent, and its effect on Km depends on whether the inhibitor binds like a competitive or uncompetitive inhibitor.

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23
Q

Explain an uncompetitive inhibitor and its effects on Km and Vmax

A

Uncompetitive inhibitors bind to the enzyme-substrate complex, but the substrate remains bound to the enzyme, thus Km decreases. The substrate stays bound to the enzyme for a longer period of time, so Vmax is lowered as well.

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24
Q

If the highest priority group of a molecule is an aldehyde, what will the suffix be?

A

-al

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25
Q

In keto-enol tautomerism, which form is favored at equilibrium?

A

The keto form because the carbonyl bond is stronger than the C-C double bond

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26
Q

Name 3 major functions of the smooth ER?

A

Cholesterol synthesis
Phospholipid production
Calcium storage

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27
Q

Where does beta oxidation take place in eukaryotic cells?

A

In peroxisomes

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28
Q

What are gap junctions made of?

A

Connexin

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29
Q

What do gap junctions allow?

A

Gap junctions allow for the flow of small molecules and solutes between cells

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30
Q

Which motor protein moves toward the plus end of microtubules?

A

Dynein

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31
Q

Microfilaments are made up of:

A

Actin

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32
Q

What is a phosphodiester bond?

A

A phosphodiester bond is a covalent bond between the oxygen on the 3’ carbon of the first nucleotide and the phosphorus group on the 5’ carbon of the second nucleotide

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33
Q

What is the role of specific transcription factors?

A

Specific transcription factors bind to response elements to promote or inhibit transcription

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34
Q

How do chaperone proteins assist in folding proteins?

A

Chaperone proteins assist in protein folding by preventing aggregation and stabilizing the protein in microenvironments

35
Q

What is a nucleosome?

A

A nucleosome is a basic structural unit of DNA packing, and is 150-200 base pairs of DNA wound around 8 histones, which are positively charged

36
Q

Which groups can you add to histones to increase transcription? How does this work?

A

Acetyl, methyl, phosphate. The addition of these groups to histone decreases the histone’s affinity for DNA, thus making the DNA more accessible

37
Q

In electrophoresis, is the anode or cathode positively charged?

A

In electrophoresis, the anode is positively charged

38
Q
A
39
Q

What are sphingomyelins?

A

Fatty acids that contain head groups composed of phosphocholine or phosphoethanolamine

40
Q

What are ceramides?

A

Ceramides are sphingolipids that have a single hydrogen atom as their head group

41
Q

How many Daltons is one amino acid?

A

110 Da

42
Q

What does it mean if Keq is greater than 1?

A

It means the forward reaction is favored

43
Q

What does it mean if Keq is less than 1?

A

It means the reactants are favored

44
Q

What kind of linkage binds two glucose molecules when linked linearly?

A

An alpha(1,4) linkage

45
Q

What kind of linkage binds two glucose molecules at branch point?

A

An alpha(1,6) linkage

46
Q

What is the net reaction of glycolysis?

A

1 Glucose + 2 ADP + 2 NAD -> 2 pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH

47
Q

What are the products of the pentose phosphate pathway?

A

NADPH and ribose 5-P

48
Q

What are the high energy electron carriers that supply the ETC with energy?

A

NADH and FADH2

49
Q

How many molecules of CO2 are produced from one molecule of glucose that undergoes glycolysis and the citric acid cycle?

A

6 CO2

50
Q

Upon ATP hydrolysis, how are sodium and potassium transported?

A

Three sodiums are transported out of the cell and two potassiums are transported into the cell against their concentration gradient

51
Q

How many fused rings are in a steroid?

A

4

52
Q

Can hydrophobic or hydrophilic molecules pass through the membrane?

A

Hydrophobic molecules can pass through the membrane

53
Q

What are endothelial cells?

A

Endothelial cells are the cells that are in direct contact with blood and the surrounding matrix, and play an important role in gas exchange

54
Q

How are nucleotides linked to one another?

A

Nucleotides are linked to one another by phosphodiester bonds between the sugar base of one nucleotide and the phosphate group of the adjacent nucleotide in a way that the 5’ end bears a phosphate and the 3’ end a hydroxyl

55
Q

What is gluconeogenesis?

A

The pathway for the synthesis of glucose from other metabolic compounds such as lipids and amino acids (when there are not enough carbs)

56
Q

Where does transcription take place in eukaryotes?

A

Nucleus

57
Q

Where does translation take place in eukaryotes?

A

Ribosomes

58
Q

What is the endomembrane system?

A

The portion of the cells that is in charge of modifying proteins that will be secreted

59
Q

Explain how saturated fatty acids affect membrane fluidity

A

Saturated fatty acid tails do not have large kinks in their chains, so they can pack together more tightly which increases rigidity and decreases membrane fluidity

60
Q

Explain how unsaturated fatty acids affect membrane fluidity

A

Unsaturated fatty acid tails lead to increased fluidity because their kinks push them apart and they cannot tightly pack

61
Q

How does an increase in lipid rafts affect fluidity?

A

It decreases fluidity

62
Q

What is innate immunity?

A

A non-specific immunity that is activated immediately or within a few hours when a foreign particle enters the body

63
Q

What is adaptive immunity?

A

A specific type of immunity that is developed when a foreign particle or antigen enters the body and acts on the next exposure

64
Q

What is innate immunity due to?

A

Innate immunity is due to the physical barriers like skin and immune cells like white blood cells such as neutrophils, macrophages and mast cells

65
Q

What is the adaptive immunity due to?

A

Adaptive immunity is due to the lymphocytes that include T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes. Antibodies are developed due to adaptive immunity that attacks the antigens

66
Q

What does the mesoderm germ layer develop into?

A

Muscle, circulatory system, the kidney, and bone marrow

67
Q

What does the ectoderm germ layer develop into?

A

The skin, brain, and nervous system

68
Q

What does the endoderm germ layer develop into?

A

The lining of the gut

69
Q

When do mutations most often occur?

A

During DNA replication

70
Q

What happens to the mitochondria in sperm following penetration?

A

The mitochondria disintegrate

71
Q

What is the osmotic pressure equation?

A

Osmotic pressure = icR*T

72
Q

What are desmosomes?

A

Anchoring junctions that connect neighboring cells and are present in smooth, skeletal, and cardiac muscle

73
Q

What are cadherins?

A

Often found in desmosomes. Type of cell adhesion that involves two cells of the same or similar type that use calcium

74
Q

What are tight junctions?

A

They form a continuous intercellular barrier between epithelial cells

75
Q

What are intercalated discs?

A

Unique to cardiac muscle; how cardiac myocytes communicate; contain gap junctions

76
Q

How does a silent point mutation affect a protein?

A

A silent point mutation does not affect the expression of a protein or the amino acid sequence

77
Q

What is the neural tube derived from?

A

The ectoderm

78
Q

Can proteins pass through lipid bilayers?

A

No, proteins are too large to pass through lipid bilayers

79
Q

Which metabolic cycle produces GTP?

A

The citric acid cycle

80
Q

What are desmosomes and what do they do?

A

Desmosomes are protein complexes that function to anchor cells together

81
Q

What do antibiotics target?

A

Bacteria

82
Q

What do astrocytes form?

A

The blood brain barrier

83
Q
A

APRIL MCAT (3 decks)

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