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Bio/ Biochem Flashcards

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1
Q

Post transcriptional modifications

A

addition of 5’ cap and poly A tail on 3’ end in addition to splicing

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2
Q

transcription

A

process of synthesizing a mRNA segment from DNA in the nucleus

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3
Q

translation

A

synthesis of protein from mRNA (occurs in the cytoplasm in the ribosome)

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4
Q

replication

A

process by which one DNA molecule produces two identical DNA molecules (takes place in S phase of cell cycle)

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5
Q

S phase

A

part of cell replication in which DNA replicates (occurs between G1 and G2 phases during interphase)

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6
Q

G1 phase

A

first part of interphase– cell growth occurs prepping for divide, cell components duplicate (except for the chromatin)

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7
Q

G2 phase

A

last part of interphase– cell double checks everything was duplicated correctly, prepares for mitosis/meiosis, continues growth and production of needed molecules

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8
Q

Interphase

A

G1 then S then G2 (increases cell size and chromosomal duplication in prep for mitosis/ meiosis)

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9
Q

insulin

A

a peptide hormone made in the pancreas; causes the uptake of glucose from the blood by cells (high blood glucose= insulin release)

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10
Q

lymph

A

fluid that flows through the lymphatic system (extracellular)

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11
Q

prion

A

a pathogenic misfolded protein that is transmissible and can induce other protein misfolding

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12
Q

Western blots

A

(SNOW DROP)
detect specific protein in sample

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13
Q

Northern blot

A

(SNOW DROP)
detect RNA fragments in a sample

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14
Q

Southern blot

A

detects DNA in a sample

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15
Q

How does PCR work

A

a segment of DNA is heated to denature it then Taq polymerase synthesizes two new stands of DNA (creates many copies)

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16
Q

active transport

A

movement of molecules against their gradient with input of energy

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17
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

transport of molecules along conc gradient through transport proteins

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18
Q

Vasopressin (Anti Diuretic Hormone)

A

(peptide hormone made by the hypothalamus stored in PPG)

senses high blood osmolarity–> inserts aquaporins –> causes water to be reabsorbed back into the blood
(red. plasma osmolarity and urine production)

MNEMONIC: Always Drilling Holes

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19
Q

aldosterone

A

steroid hormone released by the adrenal cortex

triggered by low blood volume in afferent arteriole –> increases Na/K pump activity –> causes increase water flow out of cell to balance solutes
(increases blood volume)

MNEMONIC: Al Da Sodium

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20
Q

Sodium Potassium pump

A

“PumpKiN”
active transporter that pumps 3 Na out of cell against gradient and 2 K into the cell against gradient
(net movement of 1 ion out of cell)
helps maintain blood osmolarity and membrane potential (req ATP input)

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21
Q

agranular leukocytes

A

monocytes and macrophages (can differentiate into osteoclasts)

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22
Q

osteoclasts

A

break down bone tissues to increase blood calcium levels (stimulated by parathyroid hormone PTH— suppressed by calcitonin)

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23
Q

leuokocytes

A

white blood cells

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24
Q

granular leukocytes

A

basophils, neutrophils, and eosinophils
contain lysogenic enzymes

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25
Q

basophils

A

granular white blood cells, present in lowest quantity, mediate allergic responses

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26
Q

neutrophils

A

granular white blood cells; most common; 1st responders- ingest bacteria (particularly those marked with antibodies) by phagocytes

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27
Q

eosinophils

A

type of granular wbc; mediate allergic response and respond to parasitic infections

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28
Q

monocytes

A

type of WBC that signal other WBC to help treat injury/ prevent infection
two types: macrophages and dendritic cells

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29
Q

macrophages

A

type of monocyte WBC that ingests dead cells, breaks down pathogens by phagocytosis and displays antigen on cell so the adaptive immune system can recognize them
(remove apoptotic cells)

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30
Q

How does our body know not to attack out own cells during an immune response

A

Our body cells feature an MHC 1 complex which signals T killer cells to not attack

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31
Q

dendritic cells

A

type of monocyte WBC; breaks down pathogen by phagocytosis and displays the antigen (activates T cells)

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32
Q

natural killer cells

A

attack cells not presenting the MHC 1 complex

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33
Q

lymphocytes

A

part of the adaptive immune response include T and B cells which mature in the bone marrow and are found in blood/ lymph tissue

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34
Q

Helper T cells

A

recognize (intruders) antigens presented by MHC II complex and activates immune response

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35
Q

cytotoxic T cells

A

recognize antigens containing the MHC 1 antigen but are turned bad/ not wanted
ex. when our body produces tumors these cells show that they are meant to be in our body (MHC 1) but we rlly don’t want them –> apoptosis

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36
Q

supressor T cells

A

dampen immune response to prevent tissue damage from uncontrolled inflammation

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37
Q

B cells

A

mature in bone marrow; create antibodies

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38
Q

active antibodies

A

antibodies which the B cell has been trained to make

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39
Q

passive antibodies

A

passed to person by someone else (ex. mother passing antibodies to babies)
these antibodies do not trigger an immune response

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40
Q

codominant inheritance

A

both alleles are expressed simultaneously (ex. Blood typing both A and B are expressed as AB)

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41
Q

innate immune system

A

originate from myeloid stem cells; fast response, recognize common pattens but do not form memories (macrophage, NK cell, monocyte, neutrophil, eosinophil, basophil, dendritic cells, and mast cells)

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42
Q

adaptive immune system

A

originates from lymphoid cells; slow initial response but forms memory to increase response time on second exposure to pathogen (B cells/ T cells)

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43
Q

cooperative binding

A

creates S shaped graph; as one subunit binds it increases affinity for substrate

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44
Q

CADET

A

to decrease oxygen binding affinity
incr CO2
Incr Acidity (decr pH)
incr DGP
Incr exercise
incr temp

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45
Q

erythropoietin

A

makes red blood cells
released by kidneys to bone marrow causes erythroblast to erythrocyte
(removed by spleen)

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46
Q

albumin

A

major osmoregulatory protein, carries hormones through the blood

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47
Q

fibrinogen

A

in its inactive form, activated by thrombin to make fibrin which allows blood clotting

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48
Q

coagulation

A

clotting

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49
Q

hemophillia

A

one clotting factor missing; stops prothrombin which stops thrombin production (stops fibrin from being made) aka no clotting

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50
Q

thrombocytes

A

platelets (stim by thrombopoiten) –> involved in blood clotting

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51
Q

What is usually in urine

A

DUMP the HUNK
(hydrogen, urea, nitrogen, and ions like potassium)

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52
Q

glomerus

A

1st part of nephron; filters plasma to produce filtrate (reg protein in urine– capillaries prevent large molecules from entering filtrate)

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53
Q

Bowmans capsule

A

participates in the filtration of blood from the glamorous capillaries

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54
Q

Distal and proximal convoluted tube

A

isotonic to the blood; where reabsorption and secretion occurs (usually only deals with smaller molecules bc it is after the glomerus)

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55
Q

GI tract hormones (Garlic Cloves Smell Exquisite)

A

gastrin
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Secretin
Enterogastrone (gastric inhib peptide)

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56
Q

Hormones that increase blood glucose (STENGG)

A

-somatotropin (growth hormone)
-Thyroid hormones (thyroxine & triiodothyronin)
-Epinephrine
-Norepinephrine
-Glucagon
-Glucocorticosteroids

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57
Q

menstrual cycle “FOL(d) M(a)PS

A

Ovarian cycle: follicular phase, ovulatory phase, Luteal phase
Menstrual cycle: Menstrual flow, Proliferative phase, Secretory phase

ovarian phase controls menstrual cycle
day 0- menstrual flow starts
day 14- luteal and secretory phase begin and last till day 28
(cycle repeats)

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58
Q

Luteal phase

A

day 14-28– prepares uterus for pregnancy by thickening uterine lining

LH decrease
estrogen and progesterone increase

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59
Q

follicular stage

A

day 0-14 pituitary gland hormones stim production of follicles on ovary

estrogen rises
LH increases at end
FSH increases (2 peaks)

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60
Q

hexokinase

A

phosphorylates glucose in glycolysis to trap it in cells

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61
Q

glucokinase

A

in liver and pancreatic beta cells; responsive to insulin; phosphorylates glucose

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62
Q

Phosphofructokinase 1 (PFK-1)

A

rate limiting step of glycolysis (irreversible step)

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63
Q

PFK 2

A

produces F2,6-BP in glycolysis which activates PFK 1

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64
Q

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase

A

produces NADH (in glycolysis)

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65
Q

enzymes involved in irreversible rxns in glycolysis

A

glucokinase/ hexokinase, PFK1, and pyruvate kinase

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66
Q

native PAGE

A

analyzes protein in its folded state

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67
Q

SDS-PAGE

A

uses detergent to break all NONCOVALENT interactions and analyzes non folded state

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68
Q

structural proteins

A

generally fibrous; include:
collagen, keratin, elastin, actin, and tubulin

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69
Q

motor proteins

A

capable of force generation through a conformational change
(myosin, kinesin, dyenin)

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70
Q

cell adhesion molecules (CAM)

A

bind cells to other cells or surfaces (cadherins, integrals, selectins)

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71
Q

ion channels

A

regulate flow of ions in/out of cell (ungated, voltage gated, and ligand gated)

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72
Q

enzyme linked receptors

A

participate in cell signaling through extracellular ligand binding and initiates secondary messenger cascades

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73
Q

G protein coupled receptors

A

have a membrane bound protein associated with G protein; initiate second messenger systems

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74
Q

ligase

A

enzyme involved in joining of two large molecules; catalyzes the formation of a phosphodiester bond between adjacent Okazaki fragments

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75
Q

isomerases

A

catalyze the interconversion of isomers (constitutional and stereo)

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76
Q

lyases

A

enzymes that catalyze the cleavage without addition of water or transfer of electrons (rev rxn is synthesis)

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77
Q

hydrolases

A

catalyze cleavage through the insertion of H2O molecule

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78
Q

oxidoreductases

A

catalyze the oxidation-reduction reactions that involve transfer of electrons

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79
Q

transferases

A

enzymes that more a functional group from one molecule to another

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80
Q

competitive inhibition

A

inhibitor binds (reversibly) to active site of enzyme causing increase of Km and no Vmax change
(looks like an angled X on a graph)

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81
Q

noncompetitive inhibition

A

inhibitor binds to an allosteric site; no Km change; decreases Vmax
(graph looks like an angled V)

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82
Q

uncompetitive inhibition

A

inhibitor binds to enzyme susbstrate complex
decreases Km and Vmax
(graph looks like two parallel diagonal lines)

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83
Q

loop of henle

A

part of the nephron which serves to concentrate urine (conc increases as it descends–impermiable to sodium and decreases as it ascends– absorbs filtered sodium)

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84
Q

vasa recta

A

capillary beds surrounding the loop of hence (blood travels from the afferent arterioles through the glomerus and into the efferent arterioles to the vasa vesta)

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85
Q

hyperventilation effects

A

decrease in blood co2 which causes the pH to increase as H+ ions are lost due to the shift of the bicarbonate buffer

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86
Q

hematocrit

A

volume percentage of red blood cells (erythrocytes) in the blood

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87
Q

oncotic pressure

A

the “sucking” pressure of solutes as they try to draw water into the bloodstream (concentration dependent)

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88
Q

hydrostatic pressure

A

force per unit that blood exerts on vessel walls (independent of concentration)

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89
Q

erythrocyte

A

red blood cell; oxygen carrying component of the blood (contains Hemoglobin which can bind up to 4 oxygen molecules)

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90
Q

HDL

A

High Density Lipoprotein causes increased cholesterol recovery from the blood and delivers some cholesterol to the tissues like the liver (incr HDL = incr cholesterol in tissues- decr in blood)

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91
Q

HMG-CoA reductase

A

3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl (HMG) CoA reductase catalyzes the rate limiting step of de novo cholesterol synthesis in liver (and 10% in small intestine)
incr HMG-CoA reductase = decr cholesterol in tissue

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92
Q

glucagon

A

peptide hormone secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas; regulates blood glucose (stimulates glucose production in the liver to raise blood conc and lowers cholesterol levels)

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93
Q

De novo synthesis of cholesterol

A

the process of making cholesterol, driven by ATP and NADPH (regulated by glucagon and catalyzed by HMG-CoA reductase)

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94
Q

ketone bodies

A

synthesized in ketogenesis in the liver; used as an energy source when glucose is not available (made from fatty acids)
ex. acetone; acetoacetate; B-hydroxybutate
***levels incr during fasting

95
Q

metabolism response to long term starvation

A

brain reduces glycolysis and begin metabolizing ketone bodies (protects proteins from being broken down for gluconeogenesis)
(glucagon and epinephrine levels are elevated during starvation)

96
Q

betaoxidation

A

oxidation of free fatty acids from adipose tissues when they enter the liver to produce many acetyl CoAs

97
Q

brain energy source

A

main source is glucose; after fasting there brain switches toward using ketone bodies (similar to what the heart does)

98
Q

lactose is broken into what simple sugars

A

glucose and galactose

99
Q

cholesterol impact on the plasma membrane

A

plasma membranes with increased cholesterol content are more stabilized as cholesterol stabilizes adjacent phospholipids and occupies the space between them making them more rigid
(increases fluidity at low temps and decreases fluidity at high temps)

100
Q

voltage gated ion channels

A

open in response to a change of voltage across the membrane allowing ion flow

101
Q

ion gated channel

A

these channels open in the presence of a certain ion and allow for flow through the membrane

102
Q
A
103
Q

endocytosis

A

method by which materials from outside the cell can enter (reverse of exocytosis)

104
Q

plasma cells

A

derived from lymphocytic lineage (B cells turn into plasma cells when bacteria/viruses enter the body)
plasma cells make antibodies to fight bacteria and viruses, stopping infection and disease

105
Q

penetrance

A

likelihood the gene will be expressed if present (ex. will freckles be present or not present)

106
Q

expressivity

A

to degree to which the phenotype is expressed (ex. varying amount of freckles)

107
Q

translocation

A

the exchange of pieces of genes between SEPARATE chromosomes (would result in some genes missing from one gene and extra in other)

108
Q

inversion mutation

A

segment of DNA is reversed within the chromosome (all genes present but in different order)

109
Q

cells of myeloid origin

A

monocytes (macrophages and dendritic cells), granulocytes (eisonophils/ basophils/ neutrophils), erythrocytes, and platelets

110
Q

cells of lymphocytic origin

A

B cells (and plasma cells), T cells, and NK cells

111
Q

oxygen is the ____ in the ETC and _____ where as electron transporter are _____

A

final e- acceptor (GER); reduced
oxidized (NADH donates electron to become NAD+ LEO)

112
Q

transcription factor

A

-proteins involved in the process of converting/transcribing DNA to RNA
-have a DNA-binding domain that allows it to bind to a regulatory nucleic acid sequence in a gene to alter transcription
(not unique in that they end up in nucleus other proteins can as well)

113
Q

Carnitine palmitoyltransferase I

A

an enzyme in the liver that is essential for fatty acid oxidation (metabolizing fats for energy)

114
Q

carboxylase

A

an enzyme which catalyzes the addition of CO2 molecule to a substrate O-C=O

115
Q

which amino acids can be phosphorylated (3)

A

serine (S), threonine (T), tyrosine (Y)
aka the three amino acids with hydroxyl groups in their R groups

116
Q

henrys law

A

C=kP
C= concentration of dissolved gas
k= henrys law constant
P= partial pressure of gas

**can also be written as S=kP where S= solubility of gas

117
Q

ghrelin

A

peptide hormone secreted by the stomach and small intestine to stimulate appetite (tummy is GHRowling)

*high ghrelin levels when blood glucose/ insulin levels are low

118
Q

leptin

A

peptide hormone secreted by adipose tissue to repress hunger (Lemme put it in a TIN)

*high leptin levels = high insulin/ blood glucose

119
Q

giantism

A

caused by the production/ secretion of too much growth hormone (GH)

120
Q

ribosomal subunit size in Svedberg for prokaryotes

A

30S and 50S for a total size of 70S

121
Q

ribosomal subunit size in Svedberg for Eukaryotes

A

40S and 60S for a total size of 80S

122
Q

aminoacyl transferase

A

enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of tRNA from site A–>P–> E in the large ribosome subunit during translation

123
Q

antagonist

A

a substance which interferes with or inhibits the physiological action of another; substance usually binds to the receptor without activating it thus decreasing its ability to be activated

ex. if enzyme one increases heart rate and an antagonist of it is introduced the heart rate will not increase it will decrease/stay const)

124
Q

agonist

A

a substance which mimic the action of the signal ligand by binding to the receptor

ex. when patients lack serotonin they are given ssris which are serotonin agonists and activate the serotonin receptors to cause response

125
Q

serotonin

A

neurotransmitter that is responsible for feelings of happiness and well-being (regulates mood, sleep, and digestion)
especially aggression!

126
Q

dopamine

A

a neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention, learning, and the brain’s pleasure and reward system.

127
Q

gel filtration chromatography

A

separates proteins by size ONLY

128
Q

Ion exchange chromatography

A

separation of molecules by charge usually due to charge of functional groups (uses solute often in liquid form)

129
Q

isoelectric focusing

A

separation of molecules based on charge specifically their isoelectric point

130
Q

inactive X chromosome (called X-inactivation or Lyonization)

A

early in female embryonic development one of the X chromosomes in randomly and permanently inactivated in cells other than the egg cell; (ensures each cell as one functional copy of X chromosome like males)
*inactive X chromo is one of last to replicate and its chromatin is more condensed (not highly replicated)

131
Q

law of mass action

A

equilibrium constant = [products]/[reactants] with each component raised to a power of their stoichiometric coefficient (does not include water as liquid or solvent in eqn)

132
Q

for bile release the wall of the gallbladder _____ and the hepatopancreatic sphincter will ____

A

contract; relax
this will occur in response to food consumption

133
Q

lipase

A

breaks down fats

134
Q

peptidase and protease

A

(breaks down proteins)
proteases are involved in hydrolase activity; breaking the peptide bond

peptidases are a type of protease capable of cleaving the end terminals of peptide chain

135
Q

amylase

A

breaks down carbohydrates (secreted by mouth and pancreas)

136
Q

nucleases

A

break down nucleotides

137
Q

bile

A

a substance made by the liver and stored in the gallbladder; released when the gallbladder contracts and releases bile through the duodenum
bile helps with digestion in the break down of fats to fatty acids

138
Q

extra water not secreted by the urine is secreted by the:

A

skin and lungs
in the skin as transpiration and in the lungs by humidifying the air as it enters the body
(extracted by the intestine during diarrhea)

139
Q

when the kidney works to conserve water the blood and urine osmolarity:

A

blood osmolarity decreases
urine osmolarity increases
(incr osmolarity means that there is less water compared to solvents)

140
Q

when a person is dehydrated the osmolarity in the urine and blood

A

both increase (less water to excrete or absorb in to the blood stream)

141
Q

cardiac output (co) eqn

A

CO = SV x HR
CO= cardiac output (the amount of blood pumped by heart per minute)
SV= stroke volume (aka volume of blood pumped by left ventricle)
HR= heart rate

142
Q

lactate

A

produced by fermentation when cells do not have enough oxygen to keep up with their energy need; during exercise this substance accumulates in the blood and increases lactate plasma concentration as well as the osmolarity of venous blood

143
Q

venous blood

A

deoxygenated blood that flows from capillary bed vessels within the tissues to progressively larger veins to the right side of the heart

144
Q

blood pathway

A

superior vena cavity–> right atrium – (through tricupsid valve)–> right ventricle –(through pulmonary valve)–> lungs –> left atrium –> left ventricle –> inferior vena cava –> aorta –> rest of body [repreats]

veins carry deoxygenated blood from body to right side of heart
arteries carry oxygenated blood from left side of heart to body

145
Q

reverse transcriptase

A

enzymes in retroviruses that converts the viral genome from RNA back to DNA
(viruses like HIV)

146
Q

how does an enzyme catalyst affect a reaction (on graph)

A

the activation energy (big hump) will be lowered but the free energy of the reactants and products will stay the same (delta g isn’t affected)

147
Q

microglia

A

microglia are phagocytotic innate immune cells specific to the BRAIN

148
Q

mast cells

A

part of the innate immune response; engulf foreign pathogens, especially parasites; can also present antigens to T-cells (less common)

149
Q

desmosomes

A

intercellular junctions that function as anchors to form strong sheets of cells

150
Q

tight junctions

A

intercellular junctions that prevent the movement of solutes within the space between adjacent cells (ex. involved in blood brain barrier)

151
Q

gap junctions

A

intercellular junctions that provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells

152
Q

intercalated discs

A

specialized intercellular junctions between cardiac muscle cells that provide direct electrical coupling among cells

153
Q

amber codon

A

stop codon (ex TAG which is then coded as UAG)

154
Q

endosomes

A

a membrane bound compartment within an eukaryotic cell; transport things from outside the cell

155
Q

non-disjunction

A

occurs when sister chromatids fail to separate during cell division
(could cause be responsible for failure of gamete to receive a copy of a particular chromosome)

156
Q

linkage

A

the tendency of DNA sequences that are close together on a chromosome to be inherited together

157
Q

crossing over (recombination)

A

the exchange on genetic material between homologous (non-sister) chromosomes
(occurs in prophase 1 of meiosis)

158
Q

NMDA receptors

A

subtype of glutamate receptor

159
Q

acetylcholine

A

neurotransmitter that plays role in brain functions like memory and body functions

160
Q

GABA

A

primary inhibition neurotransmitter in brain and spinal cord, produced by beta cells of the pancreas to inhibit alpha cells of the pancreas, stimulate beta cell growth, and convert alpha to beta cells

161
Q

which metabolic processes require oxygen?

A

Krebs cycle and electron transport chain

162
Q

determining autosomal recessive vs dominant on a pedigree

A

look at the branch (if avail) where both parents are affected:
-if all offspring affected–> recessive
-if not all offspring affected –> dominant

**recessive usually skips generations after heterosexual and doesn’t affect all
**dominant wont skip gens and will usually affect more indiv per gen

163
Q

determining x linked dominant vs recessive from a pedigree

A

no affected parents yields only affected sons—> most likely recessive

affected dad yields only affected daughters —> most likely dominant

the linkage can not be confirmed for the recessive and the mech of inheritance can’t be confirmed for the dominant but this can help for problems where it asks you to predict most likely option:)

164
Q

how to determine if mech of inheritance is autosomal or sex linked from a pedigree

A

if the ratio of affected males to females is almost 1:1 (not showing any extreme prev of just one gender affected) it is most likely autosomal and not sex linked

165
Q

convergent evolution

A

the evolution in different lineages of structures that are similar or analogous due to similar environments not due to the existence of a common ancestor

166
Q

fitness

A

the ability to pass genes on or reproductive success
(often seen in trick questions about health and “in shape” individuals who can not reproduce)

167
Q

selection by differential reproduction

A

individuals who reproduce more viable offspring are selected FOR

individuals who produce less viable offspring are selected AGAINST

168
Q

natural selection

A

survival and reproduction of the fittest

169
Q

directional selection

A

selects for a trait on one extreme

170
Q

stabilizing selection

A

selects for a trait that is moderate (selects against the extremes)

171
Q

disruptive selection

A

selects traits that are extremes on both ends (for example in habitats with two extreme niches)

172
Q

group selection

A

natural selection acting on the group not the individual (explains why altruism exists; the sacrifice of the individual for the benefit of the group)

173
Q

evolutionary success

A

an increase in percent representation in the gene pool of the next generation (ex. if frequency of an allele increases that is evolutionary success for that allele)

174
Q

definition of species

A
  1. to be able to interbreed
  2. produce fertile and viable offspring
  3. does this naturally
175
Q

polymorphism

A

different forms of alleles/ trats

176
Q

adaptation

A

the genetic change in a population caused by natural selection (Darwins ideas not Lamarks)

177
Q

specialization

A

adaptation of traits to better fill a niche

178
Q

bottle neck

A

severe reduction in population size (often caused by natural disasters)
**bottle necks incr the affect of genetic drift

179
Q

genetic drift

A

random changes in allele frequencys (affect increases as population size decr)

180
Q

divergent evolution

A

same lineage evolving apart to be more different (share common ancestor but now have very different characteristic due to diff needs)
produces homologous structures

181
Q

parallel evolution

A

same lineage, evolving closer together to be similar using similar mechanisms

182
Q

coevolution

A

two species evolve in response to each other (often seen in predator prey relationships or host and parasite)

183
Q

gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)

A

released by the neurons in the hypothalamus and stimulate the pituitary gland to produce LH and FSH

184
Q

endocrine axis: reproductive axis

A

regulated by GnRH

185
Q

endocrine axis: stress axis

A

regulated by glucocorticoid hormones like cortisol

186
Q

endocrine axis: growth hormone

A

regulated by growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) which stimulates the release of growth hormone (GH)

187
Q

growth hormone

A

produced in the hypothalamus; secreted by the anterior pituitary gland (promotes growth and raises blood glucose as somatotropin)

188
Q

endocrine axis: thyroid axis

A

regulated by thyroid releasing hormone (TRH)

189
Q

primase

A

catalyzes the binding of RNA primers to DNA via phosphodiester bonds

190
Q

helicase

A

catalyzes the separation of the parent DNA strands at the origin of replication

191
Q

topoisomerase

A

relaxes supercoiled DNA ahead of the replication fork

192
Q

alternative splicing

A

*only in eukaryotes
cellular process in which exons from the same gene are joined in different combinations leading to diff but related mRNA transcripts

193
Q

calcium and muscle contractions

A

calcium triggers contraction by reaction with regulatory proteins that in the absence of calcium prevent interaction of actin and myosin (incr Ca+ = incr force of contraction)

194
Q

calcium functions in the body

A

blood clotting, muscle contraction, activation of enzymes, and cellular communication (parathyroid gland is main receptor and control center for blood calcium levels)

195
Q

parathyroid hormone

A

released by the parathyroid gland; increases the blood calcium level– stimulates osteoclasts to break down bone and release calcium into the bloodstream

196
Q

Complex 1 electron carrier

A

NADH donates to complex 1

197
Q

complex 2 electron carrier

A

FADH2 donates to complex 2

198
Q

which ETC complex can break

A

if complex 1 or 2 breaks electrons can still be passed down the chain in lower amounts; but if complex 3 or 4 break then the etc can not continue
***ATP synthase is not complex 4

199
Q

DNP

A

reduces efficiency of ETC energy synthesis; uncouples ETC and ATP synthase

200
Q

how does histone acetylation affect transcription

A

it leads to transcriptional activation by modifying chromatin structure and decreasing coiling
(methylation on the other hand can have either an activating or repressing affect)

201
Q

adrenal medulla

A

part of the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system only; secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine (comes from the ectoderm)

202
Q

ectoderm develops into

A

PNS, adrenal medulla, melanocytes, facial cartilage

203
Q

endoderm develups into

A

digestive tube and respiratory tube (liver and pancreas)

204
Q

mesoderm develups into

A

heart, kidneys, skeleton, adrenal cortex

205
Q

allosteric inhibition

A

involves binding to a site other than the active site on an enzyme

206
Q

energy derived from the Krebs cycle in the form of

A

ATP which directly supplies energy for many cell processes and NADH which supplies energy for the ETC

207
Q

osmotic pressure eqn

A

osmotic pressure = i*RMT
(i= vant hoff factor; M= molar conc; R= gas const; T=temp in K)

osmotic pressure is proportionate to M

208
Q

phosphoglucose isomerase

A

enzyme involved in glycolysis
(catalyzes the reversible isomerization of glucose-6-phosphate to fructose 6-phosphate, which is the second step in glycolysis)

209
Q

Restriction enzymes will recognize what type of sequences

A

Restriction enzymes recognize palindromic sequences in DNA, meaning the sequence read 5’ to 3’ of one strand is the same as the sequence read 5’ to 3’ of the complementary strand

ex: 5’ CTAG 3’
5’ CTAG 3’
only two bases would be recognized (CT) because they are the only ones that “match”

210
Q

succinate dehydrogenase

A

the other name for complex ii in the ETC (deals with FADH2)
ALSO enzyme of the citric acid cycle that forms FADH2

211
Q

ubiquinone oxidoreducatase

A

other name for complex 1 in the ETC (deals with NADH)

212
Q

ubiquinol-cytochrome c oxidoreductase

A

other name for complex 3 of the ETC

213
Q

cytochrome c oxidase

A

other name for complex 4 in the ETC

214
Q

Succinyl-CoA synthetase

A

enzyme in the citric acid cycle which produces succinate and CoA from Succinyl-CoA (also accompanied by the phosphorylation of ADP/GDP to ATP/GTP)

215
Q

Succinate dehydrogenase

A

enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of succinate to furmate

216
Q

Can I Keep Selling Seashells For Money Officer?

A

citrate
isocitrate
a-ketoglutarate
succinyl-CoA
succinate
Furmate
Malate
oxaloacetate

217
Q

imprinted gene

A

imprinting means that the gene is silenced and the gene from the other parent is expressed

218
Q

direction of protein synthesis

A

synthesis of protein is unidirectional; amino acids are added to the C-terminal end

219
Q

RNA viruses replicate by:

A

can replicate by RNA dependent RNA or DNA synthesis:
In RNA dependent RNA synthesis: virally encoded RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) catalyzes the replication of RNA from viral RNA template
In RNA-dependent DNA synthesis: reverse transcriptase, a DNA polymerase, transcribes single-stranded RNA into DNA, which then acts as a template for the synthesis of new viral RNA

220
Q

optimal enzyme temp

A

37 degrees celsius
310 degrees K

221
Q

C to K conversion

A

1 C= 273 K

222
Q

epithelial tissue

A

cover the outer surfaces of the body and the lumen of internal organs (responsible for mucous secretions to inhibit microbial infections)

223
Q

smooth muscles

A

found in hollow organs; under autonomic control; has no striations due to lack of sacromeres; help maintain blood pressure due to constant low-level contraction of blood vessels

(ex. the walls of bronchi and bronchioles to regulate the flow of air into the lung)

224
Q

sarcoplasmic reticulum

A

complex network of specialized smooth ER; transmits electrical impulses as well as stores calcium ions (takes up ions from cytoplasm) releases Ca to cause muscle contraction

225
Q

nervous tissues

A

made of specialized cells to receive and transmit electrical impulses from specific areas of the body and send to other locations (organized in nerves)

(nervous tissue regulate the function of cells within the respiratory tract to maintain homeostasis)

226
Q

connective tissues

A

provides support and shock absorption for tissues and bones throughout body

matrix of living cells and non living substances (ground substance)– collagen fibers gives it strength; elastin fibers gives it flexibility; reticular fibers are made of thin collagen to support tissue and connected organs

227
Q

high blood osmolarity = _______ fluid in tissues
low blood molarity = _______ fluid in tissues

A

high blood osmolarity = decrease fluid in tissues
low blood osmolarity = increase fluid in tissues
**fluid flows from an area of low osmolarity to an area of high osmolarity (incr osmolarity means more things in the blood compared to fluid content)

228
Q

constipation is caused by

A

less fluid in the intestines (this could arise when the osmotic pressure of the intestines decreases and more water is absorbed from the intestines)

229
Q

diarrhea is caused by

A

more fluid in the intestines
(this could be due to unabsorbed nutrients in the intestines– incr osmotic pressure– which would inhibit water/ electrolyte absorption from the intestines)

230
Q

osteoblasts

A

cells that form new bones and grow/ heal existing bones; cause decrease blood calcium levels
regulated by thyroxine (hormone secreted by the thyroid gland)

231
Q

calcitonin

A

hormone produced by the thyroid gland to regulate calcium levels in the blood by decreasing it (opposite of PTH)
suppresses osteoclast activity and causes increased Ca excretion in urine

232
Q

feedback inhibition

A

process by which the end product of a reaction inhibits the enzyme that carries out the reaction

233
Q

order in which filtrate passes through nephron:

A

Bowmans capsule–> proximal tubule –> loop of Henle (descending then ascending) –> distal tubule –> collecting duct

MCAT (3 decks)

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