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MCAT Bio > Bio #7 > Flashcards

Bio #7 Flashcards

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1
Q

jobs of the heart

A
  • systemic blood flow

- pulmonary flow

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2
Q

aorta

A

primary artery that leaves the heart with oxygenated blood

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3
Q

coronary blood vessels

A

serve the heart

fall under systemic flow (cells of the heart)

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4
Q

vein

A

blood toward the heart

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5
Q

arterty

A

blood away from the heart

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6
Q

name of the vessels supporting the heart

A

coronary vessels

systemic circulation

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7
Q

name of the vessels supporting the lungs

A

bronchiole arteries

systemic circulation (some mixing of blood with pulmonary circulation)

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8
Q

vasoconstriction ______ resistance

A

increases

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9
Q

arteries have high _____ while veins have high _____

A

pressure

volume

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10
Q

arteries have high _____ while veins have high _____

A

pressure

volume

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11
Q

what is in the cardiovascular system

A

• The cardiovascular system consists of a muscular four-chambered heart, blood vessels, and blood
o The heart pumps blood through the vasculature which consists of arteries, capillaries, and veins.

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12
Q

heart

A

four-chambered structure composed predominately of cardiac muscle

  • has two pumps
  • each side has an atrium and ventricle
  • has electrical conduction
  • contracts
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13
Q

what are the two pumps of the heart called

A

pulmonary circulation

systemic circulation

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14
Q

pulmonary circulation

A

Right side of the heart accepts deoxygenated blood from the body and moves it to the lungs via the pulmonary arteries.

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15
Q

systemic circulation

A

left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins and forces it out of the body through the aorta.

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16
Q

atria

A

thin-walled structures where blood is received from the venae cavae (deox blood entering right heart) or the pulmonary veins (ox blood entering the left heart)
 Atria contracts and pushes blood into the ventricles.

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17
Q

ventricles

A
  • When ventricles fill they contract to push blood to the lungs (right ventricle) or to systemic circulation (left ventricle)
  • Ventricles are more muscular than atria, need bigger push
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18
Q

atrioventricular valves

A

tricuspid and mitral valves, separate the atria from the ventricles

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19
Q

tricuspid valve

A

valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle (three leaflets)

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20
Q

mitral valve

A

bicuspid valve

valve between the left atrium and the left ventricle (three leaflets)

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21
Q

semilunar valves

A

pulmonary and aortic valve, separate the ventricles from the vasculature

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22
Q

pulmonary valve

A

: the valve that separates the right ventricle from pulmonary circulation

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23
Q

aortic valve

A

the valve that separates the left ventricle from the aorta.

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24
Q

what do the valves do in the heart?

A

Valves prevent backward flow and create pressure necessary to push blood.

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25
Q

the semiluminar valves both have _____

A

3 leaflets

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26
Q

what is used to assess the status of a patient’s heart?

A

EKG or ECG

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27
Q

what are the 4 electrically excitable structures in the heart?

A

sinoatrial node (SA) ==> atrioventricular node (AV) ==> bundle of His ==> purkinje fibers

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28
Q

sinoatrial node (SA)

A
  • Generates 60-100 signals per minute without neurological input
  • Cells located in right atrium.
  • Depolarization causes the two atria to contract, atrial systole (contraction) results in an increase in atrial pressure that forces a little more blood into the ventricle (some flows in already due to ventricular relaxation)
  • Known as atrial kick
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29
Q

atrial systole

A

contraction that results in an increase in atrial pressure that forces a little more blood into the ventricle (some flows in already due to ventricular relaxation)

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30
Q

is neurological input required to get the heart to pump?

A

Neurological input is only required to speed up heart rate or slow it down, not to get it started.

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31
Q

is neurological input required to get the heart to pump?

A

Neurological input is only required to speed up heart rate or slow it down, not to get it started.

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32
Q

Atrioventricular node (AV)

A

sits at junction between atria and ventricles.

• Signal is delayed here to let the ventricles fill completely

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33
Q

bundle of His

A

embedded in the interventricular septum (wall).

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34
Q

purkinke fibers

A

distribute the electrical signal through the ventricular muscle.

cause ventricular contraction

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35
Q

intercalated discs

A

connects muscle cells, contain many gap junctions to connect cytoplasm of cells.

allows for coordinated ventricular contraction

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36
Q

what is the fancy name for heart attack and what is it?

A

myocardial infarcation

when there is a lack of blood flow through the coronary arteries so there is decreased oxygen to the cardiac muscle itself

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37
Q

what are the two phases of each heartbeat

A

systole and diastole

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38
Q

systole

A

ventricular contraction and closure of the AV valves occurs and blood is pumped out of the ventricles

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39
Q

diastole

A

the ventricles are relaxed, the semilunar valves are closed and blood from the atria fills the ventricles.
o The elasticity of the walls of the large arteries keeps diastolic blood pressure from plummeting to zero.

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40
Q

arteries carry blood _____ the heart

A

away from

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41
Q

cardiac output (CO)

A

the total blood volume pumped by a ventricle in a minute (either ventricle, same volume passing through)
• Product of heart rate (HR, beats per minute) and stroke volume (SV, volume of blood pumped per beat): CO = HR x SV
o For humans it is 5 L per minute.

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42
Q

heart rate (HR)

A

beats per minute

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43
Q

stroke volume (SV)

A

volume of blood pumped per beat

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44
Q

equation for cardiac output

A

CO = HR x SV

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45
Q

arteries

A

vessel in which blood travels away from the heart
• Aorta: largest
• Other major arteries include the carotids, subclavians, and renal arteries
• Coronary arteries perfuse the heart muscle.

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46
Q

what is the largest artery

A

aorta

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47
Q

arteries branch into ____ and then _____

A

arterioles

capillaries

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48
Q

on the veinous side of the capillary is the ____ which join into _____

A

venules

veins

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49
Q

endothelial cells

A

line all blood vessels.
• Maintains blood vessel by releasing chemicals that aid vasodilation and vasoconstriction
• Release chemicals when damaged to clot.
• Allow white blood cells to pass through to tissues during inflammatory response.

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50
Q

______ have more smooth muscle than ____

A

arteries

veins

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51
Q

what are the 3 types of vasculature?

A

arteries
capillaries
veins

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52
Q

arteries

A

o Move blood away from the heart to the lungs and other parts of the body
o Only the pulmonary arteries and umbilical arteries contain deox blood
o Muscular and elastic which provides great resistance (left side of heart has to be more muscular)

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53
Q

The greatest amount of resistance is provided by the ___

A

arterioles.

Arterioles are highly muscular and have the ability to contract and dilate in order to regulate blood pressure.

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54
Q

capillaries

A

connects circulatory system components to tissues
o Single endothelial layer and are very small.
o Allows easy diffusion of gases, nutrients, hormones and wastes.

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55
Q

The relative lack of smooth muscle in venous walls allows _____

A

stretching to store most of the blood in the body.

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56
Q

veins

A

• carry blood to heart
o Thin-walled, inelastic
o Only the pulmonary and umbilical veins contain ox blood.
o Venules: smaller venous structures that connect capillaries to the larger veins of the body.
o Veins must have structures to push blood forward and prevent backflow in the inferior vena cavae .
 Valves keep it moving and clamp shut when it tries to go back.
o Small amount of smooth muscle in veins must rely on external source to push blood forward: skeletal muscles squeeze the veins as the muscles contract.

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57
Q

what are the only arteries to carry deoxygenated blood

A

pulmonary arteries and umbilical arteries

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58
Q

what are the only veins to carry oxygenated blood

A

pulmonary veins nd umbilical veins

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59
Q

there is ____ pressure at the bottom of the inferior vena cava

A

high pressure

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60
Q

how to veins keep blood moving

A

Veins must have structures to push blood forward and prevent backflow in the inferior vena cavae.

Valves keep it moving and clamp shut when it tries to go back.

Small amount of smooth muscle in veins must rely on external source to push blood forward: skeletal muscles squeeze the veins as the muscles contract.

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61
Q

describe the steps of circulation of blood throughout the body

A

 1. Blood returns to the heart via the superior and inferior vena cava (SVC and IVC)
 2. Into right atrium, through tricuspid valve into right ventricle
 3. Contraction, through pulmonary valve
 4. Into lungs, pulmonary arteries, smaller and smaller vessels to the capillaries and participates in gas exchange.
 5. Into pulmonary veins, carry blood to left side of heart.
 6. Left atrium, through mitral valve, enters the left ventricle
 7. Contraction, blood from left ventricle goes through aortic valve to aorta/
 8. Blood enters arteries, arterioles, and capillaries.
 9. Gas exchange at capillaries, blood enters venules, then empty into SVC and IVC
 10. Repeat

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62
Q

portal system

A

blood passes through two capillary beds before returning to the heart. These capillary beds are in series.

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63
Q

portal system

A

blood passes through two capillary beds before returning to the heart.

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64
Q

what are the 3 portal systems in the body

A

hepatic portal system
hypophyseal portal system
renal portal system

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65
Q

hepatic portal system

A

blood leaving capillary beds in the walls of the gut passes through the hepatic portal vein before reaching the capillary beds in the liver

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66
Q

hypophyseal portal system

A

blood leaving capillary beds in the hypothalamus travels to capillary in the anterior pituitary to allow for paracrine secretion of releasing hormones.

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67
Q

renal portal system

A

blood leaving the glomerulus travels through an efferent arteriole before surrounding the nephron in a capillary networks called the vasa recta.

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68
Q

vasa recta capillaries

A

The vasa recta capillaries envelope the nephron tubule and then they converge into the renal vein.

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69
Q

what is the composition of blood?

A

o 55% liquid, 45% cells

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70
Q

plasma

A

liquid portion of blood, an aqueous mixture of nutrients, salts, respiratory gases, hormones, and blood proteins.

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71
Q

erythrocytes

A

red blood cells, transport oxygen and carbon dioxide
• Each erythrocyte contains molecules of hemoglobin, which can bind four molecules of oxygen each
• Biconcave which allows them to squeeze through tight spaces and increase surface area for gas exchange.
• When they mature, the nuclei, mitochondria, and other membrane bound organelles are lost.
o Makes room for more hemoglobin
o Rely on glycolysis and fermentation for ATP

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72
Q

measurements of erythrocytes

A

o Hemoglobin: how much is in blood

o Hematocrit: measure of how much of the blood sample consists of red blood cells, as a percentage.

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73
Q

leukocytes

A

: white blood cells, production of antibodies and defense against infection
• Far fewer in number than erythrocytes, but increase in number to fight off infections.

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74
Q

granulocytes

A 
leukocytes
granular leukocytes (contain granules that are visible by microscopy) and include: neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. 
	Contain a variety of compounds that are toxic to invading microbes.
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75
Q

agranulocytes

A

leukocytes
no granules, consist of: lymphocytes and monocytes
 Lymphocytes: important for specific immune response, the body’s fight against particular pathogens.
• Primary responders and memory cells for later action

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76
Q

B cells

A

leukocytes
agranulocytes
mature in bone marrow, antibodies

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77
Q

T cell

A

leukocytes
agranulocytes
mature in the thymus, kill virally infected cells and activate other immune cells.

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78
Q

monocytes

A

leukocytes
agranulocytes
: phagocytize foreign matter
• Once they leave the bloodstream and enter an organ, known as macrophages.
• Different organs have different names: microglia (brain), Langerhans (skin), and osteoclasts (bone)

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79
Q

thrombocytes

A

Platelets, blood clotting,

• Cell fragments or shards released from cells in bone marrow known as megakaryocytes. Megakaryocytes produce platelets.

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80
Q

megakaryocytes

A

produce platelets

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81
Q

Hematopoiesis

A

: production of blood cells and platelets, triggered by hormones, growth factors, and cytokines.

  • Erythropoietin: secreted by the kidney and stimulates red blood cell development.
  • Thrombopoietin: secreted by the liver and kidney and stimulates platelet development.
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82
Q

Erythropoietin

A

secreted by the kidney and stimulates red blood cell development.

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83
Q

Thrombopoietin

A

secreted by the liver and kidney and stimulates platelet development.

84
Q

antigens

A

surface proteins expressed on the surface of red blood cells.
 Could be any target to which the immune system can react.
 Two main families: ABO antigens and Rh factor.

85
Q

ABO antigens

A

 Comprised of 3 alleles for blood type
 A and B alleles are codominant.
 The O allele is recessive to both A and B alleles.
 The 4 blood types are A, B, AB, and O
• Can be written IA, IB and i, or A, B, and O

86
Q

universal donor

A

donors with O blood type because they expressed neither antigen variant and will not initiate an immune response.
 Recipient who is Type O can only receive type O

87
Q

universal recipient

A

type AB blood, no blood antigen is foreign to AB individuals.
 Blood transfusions are usually just the red blood cells.

88
Q

what do blood transfusions generally consist of?

A

red blood cells

89
Q

hemolysis

A

the rupture or destruction of red blood cells

90
Q

hemolysis

A

the rupture or destruction of red blood cells

91
Q

Rh factor

A

: also a surface protein expressed on red blood cells.
 Rh+ or Rh- refers to the presence or absence of allele D
 Rh positivity follows autosomal dominant inheritance, one positive allele is enough for the protein to be expressed.
 Erythroblastosis fetalis: if the mother is Rh- and the fetus is Rh+, the mother will begin to produce Rh+ antibodies as some fetal blood comes in contact with the mother’s blood. Not a problem for the first child but then for the second child the anti-Rh antibodies will cross the placenta and attack the fetal blood cells.
• Not a problem for blood type because blood type antibodies cannot cross the placenta.

92
Q

Rh positivity follows _______

A

autosomal dominant inheritance

93
Q

what is the safest type of blood to give

A

O-

94
Q

erythroblastosis fetalis

A

: if the mother is Rh- and the fetus is Rh+, the mother will begin to produce Rh+ antibodies as some fetal blood comes in contact with the mother’s blood. Not a problem for the first child but then for the second child the anti-Rh antibodies will cross the placenta and attack the fetal blood cells.
• Not a problem for blood type because blood type antibodies cannot cross the placenta.

95
Q

Rh- individuals produce ____ antibodies

A

Rh+ antibodies

96
Q

can blood antibodies cross the placenta?

A

No

97
Q

Can Rh antibodies cross the placenta?

A

Yes

98
Q

what are the 4 important jobs of the cardiovascular system?

A

maintenance of blood pressure, gas and solute exchange, coagulation, and thermoregulation.

99
Q

blood pressure

A

o Must remain relatively high to propel blood forward but hypertension (high blood pressure) can damage blood vessels and organs.

100
Q

how is blood pressure measured?

A

o Blood pressure is measured based on the force per unit area exerted on the wall of the blood vessel.
 Measured using a sphygmomanometer.
• Measure the gauge pressure in the systemic circulation.
 Measure of ratio of systolic to diastolic pressures
 Normal BP is 90-120/60-80

101
Q

what is normal blood pressure?

A

90-120/60-80

102
Q

where does the largest drop in blood pressure occur?

A

 The largest drop in blood pressure occurs across the arterioles.
• Important because the capillaries are thin-walled and unable to withstand the pressure of the arterial side of the vasculature.

103
Q

how do you calculate the pressure differential across the circulation?

A

DeltaP = CO x TPR
• Delta P is the pressure differential across the circulation, CO is the cardiac output, and TPR is the total peripheral (vascular) resistance

104
Q

what two factors determine the resistance of the vasculature?

A

• Cross section and length can determine resistance of the vasculature

105
Q

capillaries are like _____

A

resistors in parallel

106
Q

how is blood pressure regulated in the body?

A

o Blood pressure is regulated using baroreceptors in the walls of the vasculature.

 Neurons that detect changes in mechanical forces on the walls of the vessel
 Detect blood pressure and osmolarity irregularities (constrict/dilate vessel or get more water released back out of the ducts in the kidneys)

107
Q

atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

A

hormone released from atrial cells, lowers blood pressure by aiding in loss of salt and water from the nephron.

108
Q

what diffuses into and out of blood at the capillaries?

A

 Diffuse out of blood: oxygen and nutrients, hormones
 Diffuse into blood: carbon dioxide, hydrogen ions, urea, and ammonia, hormones

o Works by concentration gradients

109
Q

hemoglobin

A

 Carried by hemoglobin in the blood
• Composed of 4 cooperative subunits, each with heme group that binds to oxygen molecule.
• Binds to iron in the heme group which undergoes a change in oxidation state.
• Oxygen saturation: the percentage of hemoglobin molecules carrying oxygen, measured using a finger probe.

110
Q

oxygen saturation

A

the percentage of hemoglobin molecules carrying oxygen, measured using a finger probe.

111
Q

describe the process of hemoglobin working

A

 Diffuses into the alveolar capillaries, first oxygen binds to heme group and induces a conformational shift in the shape of hemoglobin from taut to relaxed and increases affinity for more oxygen molecules. Feedback-like.
• When the hemoglobin loses an oxygen, feedback like for less affinity at the rest of the binding sites.
 Hemoglobin is 100% saturated in the lungs, 80% saturated in the tissues at rest, and 30% saturated in the tissues during exercise.

112
Q

carbon dioxide

A

 Carried by hemoglobin to the lungs, lower affinity for CO2 than oxygen
 Mostly appears as bicarbonate ion HCO3-.
 Red blood cell utilizes the enzyme carbonic anhydrase to combine CO2 and water to make carbonic acid (H2CO3). Dissociates into HCO3- and H+ which are soluble in water and can be transported to the lungs for excretion.
• At the lungs, reverse reaction occurs and CO2 can be exhaled.
 Protons (low pH) can bind to hemoglobin and reduced its affinity for oxygen.
• Associated with oxygen demand.
• More oxygen dissociates and releases at tissue.

113
Q

carbonic anhydrase

A

 Red blood cell utilizes the enzyme carbonic anhydrase to combine CO2 and water to make carbonic acid (H2CO3). Dissociates into HCO3- and H+ which are soluble in water and can be transported to the lungs for excretion.
• At the lungs, reverse reaction occurs and CO2 can be exhaled.

114
Q

oxyhemoglobin curve describe

A

oxyhemoglobin curve shift to the right: Bohr effect
Shift to the right is due to: increase partial pressure of CO2, increases H+ (decreased pH), increased temperature, increased 2,3-BPG

Left shifted curve means HIGHER AFFINITY of hemoglobin for oxygen.

115
Q

Does HbF or HbA have higher affinity for oxygen

A

HbF (fetal hemoglobin)

116
Q

discuss cardiovascular system and nutrients, waste, and hormone

A

o Carbohydrates, amino acids, and fats are all absorbed in the small intestine and then are circulated to where they are needed in the body.
o Waste travels down concentration gradient to capillaries and then transported to kidneys where it is filtered and excreted.
o Hormones are released into circulation near the organ that produced them and then travel to target tissue.

117
Q

what causes hydrostatic pressure versus osmotic pressure

A

Hydrostatic pressure: caused by pressure generated from the heart and the elastic arteries. Fluid forced into interstitial through capillary walls (which are leaky by design)

Osmotic pressure: caused by the number of particles dissolved in the plasma, sucking pressure that draws water back into the blood stream.

118
Q

hydrostatic pressure

A

the force per unit area that the blood exerts against the vessel walls. Generated by the contraction of the heart and the elasticity of the arteries.
 Pushes fluid out of the capillary and into the interstitium

119
Q

osmotic pressure

A

sucking pressure by solutes as they attempt to draw water into the bloodstream.
 Typically called oncotic pressure as it is attributed to plasma proteins

120
Q

Capillary: On arteriole side of a capillary bed, hydrostatic pressure is _____and osmotic pressure ____.

A

very large, is small

121
Q

Capillary: Arteriole pressure ______ as you move toward the venule end while osmotic pressure ______, eventually making the osmotic pressure greater than the hydrostatic pressure.

A

decreases

remains the same

122
Q

Capillary: Arteriole end: net fluid ____. Venule end: net fluid ___

A

out

in

123
Q

starling forces

A

the balance of the opposing pressures is essential for maintaining the proper fluid volumes and solute concentrations inside and outside the vasculature.
 Edema: accumulation of excess fluid in the interstitium.
 Some fluid (lymph) is returned to the circulatory system via the thoracic duct.

124
Q

how does lymph fluid return to the circulatory system?

A

thoracic duct

125
Q

edema

A

accumulation of excess fluid in the interstitium.

126
Q

coagulation

A

blood clot

Platelets protect the vascular system in the event of damage by forming a clot

127
Q

clot

A

composed of both coagulation factors (proteins) and platelets, and they minimize blood loss.

128
Q

steps of coagulation

A

o Endothelium is damaged, exposes underlying connective tissue which contains collagen and protein called tissue factor.
o Platelets come in contact with exposed collagen, sense injury, and release their contents and begin to aggregate
o Liver releases coagulation factors and starts cascade.
 End of this cascade results in the activation of prothrombin to form thrombin via thromboplastin.
 Thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin.
 Fibrin forms small fibers that cross link into a woven net that captures red blood cells and other platelets, stabilizes them.

129
Q

what breaks down a blood clot

A

Plasmin is generated from plasminogen and breaks down the clot.

130
Q

what type of muscle is the heart made out of?

A

cardiac muscle

131
Q

what type of muscle is the diaphragm made out of?

A

skeletal muscle

132
Q

are ventricles or the atriums more muscular and why?

A

the ventricles are more muscular and this is because they have to push blood through the rest of the body

133
Q

both semilunar valves have ____ leaflets

A

three

134
Q

where does impulse initiation occur and does it require neurological input?

A

occurs at the SA (sinoatrial node) and requires no neurological input

135
Q

what is the atrial kick

A

the atrial kick is the extra blood that goes from the atrium to the ventricle during systole (most blood flows this way passively)

136
Q

where is the sinoatrial node located?

A

in the wall of the right atrium

137
Q

where is the atrioventricular node located?

A

at the junction of the atria and ventricles

138
Q

where is the electrical signal during heart contracts delayed?

A

at the AV node

139
Q

where is the bundle of His and its branches located?

A

in the interventricular septum (wall)

140
Q

draw the EKG diagram

A

do it

141
Q

the heart ________ electrical signals on its own but the brain is responsible for _____

A

generates

speeding up or slowing down heart rate

142
Q

what does the vagus nerve do?

A

it is responsible for parasympathetic control of the heart

143
Q

the _____ of the major arteries is responsible for maintaining adequate_____

A

elasticity

blood pressure

144
Q

the pulmonary and systemic circulation are linked in ____

A

series

145
Q

the sympathetic nervous system will ______ cardiac output

A

increase

146
Q

for humans, cardiac output is _____

A

5 L per minute

147
Q

explain the lub dub of the heart

A

first sound is the AV valves closing at the start of systole and the second sound is the semilunar valves closing at the end of systole and start of diastole

148
Q

what are the only arteries that do not contain oxygenated blood?

A

the pulmonary arteries and the umbilical arteries

149
Q

the volume of blood in arterial circulation is usually _____ than venous circulation but the cardiac output is the same

A

less

150
Q

in the lower extremities, high _____ is used to force blood through veins

A

pressure

151
Q

the _______ returns blood from the portions of the body above the heart while the _____ returns blood from the portions of body below the heart

A

superior vena cava

inferior vena cava

152
Q

do arteries contain valves?

is there smooth muscle in veins?

A

no

yes

153
Q

all blood cells are formed from _______ which originate in ______

A

hematopoeitic stem cells

bone marrow

154
Q

blood is ______ percent cells

A

45%

155
Q

what are the benefits of red blood cells being biconcave?

A

allows them to fit in capillaries and increase cell surface area for gas exchange

156
Q

When red blood cells mature, they lose 3 things. what are they?

A

nuclei, mitochondria, and other membrane bound organelles.

this means that they cannot perform oxidative phosphorylation and they cannot divide.

157
Q

what common measurements are taken of blood samples and what do they tell use?

A

hemoglobin: hemoglobin concentration in units of g/dL
hematocrit: in units of percentage of red blood cells in the blood sample.

158
Q

compare the number of leukocytes to the number of erythrocytes in blood

A

there are a ton more erythrocytes

159
Q

where do B cells and T cells mature?

A

B cells: bone marrow

T cells: thymus

160
Q

once monocytes leave the blood stream to their respective tissue, they are called _____

A

macrophages

161
Q

what are the names of the macrophages in the central nervous system, the skin, and the bones?

A

microglia
Langerhans cells
osteoclasts

162
Q

what is another name for platelets?

A

thrombocytes

163
Q

platelets are actually ______ released from megakaryocyts

A

shards from cells in bone marrow

164
Q

what is released from the kidneys to promote red blood cell developmet?

A

erythropoietin

165
Q

what is released from the liver and kidneys to stimulate platelet production?

A

thrombopoeitin

166
Q

what are the 4 different blood types?

A

A, B, AB, and O

167
Q

type O blood cells are the universal donor because they _______

A

do not express either antigen variant and therefore will not illicit an immune response

168
Q

what is it called when you give the person the wrong blood type?

A

hemolysis

169
Q

depending on blood type, a person will produce _____

A 
antibodies to whatever antigens are not expressed by their blood type 
Example:
A blood type: antibodies to B
AB blood type: no antibodies
O blood type: antibodies to A and B
170
Q

Rh positivity follows ____ inheritence

A

autosomal dominant

171
Q

erythroblastosis fetalis

A

if a mother starts producing Rh antibodies after being exposed to Rh+ during the birth of her first child, these antibodies can cross the placenta and start attacking the Rh+ of her second child.

172
Q

if you have Rh+ blood, can you receive blood from an Rh- individual?

A

yes

173
Q

another name for white blood cells

A

leukocytes (lymphocytes are for the specific immune response)

174
Q

which of the blood cells do not contain nuclei?

A

platelets and red blood cells

175
Q

what are the main roles of the cardiovascular system?

A

maintenance of blood pressure, gas and solute exchange, coagulation, and thermoregulation

176
Q

what is the device used to measure blood pressure?

A

sphygmomanometer

measures gauge pressure in systemic circulation

177
Q

what is blood pressure

A

it is the force per unit area exerted on the wall of blood vessels

178
Q

how is blood pressure expressed?

A

systolic (ventricular contraction) / diastolic (ventricular relaxation)

179
Q

pressure gradually drops from the ____ to the ____ with the largest drop at the ____ because ____

A

arterial to veinous circulation
arterioles
because the thin-walled capillaries would not be able to withstand the pressure of the arterial side of the vasculature.

180
Q

compare blood pressure to Ohm’s law

A

V = IR
deltaP = CO x TPR
pressure differential across circulation equals cardiac output x total peripheral (vascular) resistance

181
Q

how is the resistance in a blood vessel at play?

A

resistance is effected by length and cross sectional area
greater length: more resistance
larger cross-sectional area: less resistance

182
Q

compare capillary beds to physics

A

they are like resistors in parallel

183
Q

opening capillary beds will ______ vascular resistance

A

decrease

184
Q

what is the name of the group in hemoglobin that binds oxygen molecules?

A

heme group (actually bind to the heme groups central iron atom which can change its oxidation state)

185
Q

how are oxygen levels in the blood measured?

A 
partial pressure of oxygen using a blood sample OR
oxygen saturation (percentage of hemoglobin molecules carrying oxygen) can be taken using a finger probe. Healthy people have over 97%
186
Q

what form of allosteric regulation does hemoglobin use with oxygen?

A

cooperative binding

results in the classic sigmoidal oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve.

187
Q

what is the name of the enzyme that combines carbon dioxide and water to carbonic acid?

A

carbonic anhydrase

188
Q

what is the Bohr effect?

A

when blood pH is low, protons can bind to hemoglobin and reduce hemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen

189
Q

what causes the oxyhemoglobin curve to shift to the right?

A

results in a lower affinity for oxygen: H+, low pH, increased CO2, increased temperature, increased 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate

the opposites will result in a shift to the left

190
Q

compare the affinity for oxygen of fetal hemoglobin and maternal hemoglobin

A

fetal hemoglobin has higher affinity, has to pull oxygen off of adult hemoglobin

191
Q

how do the kidney and lungs work together regarding the bicarbonate buffer system?

A

if pH is too high (hyperventilation), kidney will release bicarbonate to reduce it to normal
if pH is too low because the kidney cannot get rid of H+, breathing rate will increase to blow off CO2 and increase the pH to normal

192
Q

what is osmotic pressure sometimes referred to as?

A

oncotic pressure (because most of the particles are proteins)

193
Q

where is some of the fluid in the interstitium lost to?

A

the lymphatic system

194
Q

when the endothelium is damaged, what is exposed?

A

underlying connective tissue with collagen and a protein called tissue factor

195
Q

at the end of the coagulation cascade, ____ is activated to form ____ by _____. ____ converts ____ into ____

A

prothrombin
thrombin
thromboplastin
thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin

196
Q

what does fibrin do?

A

forms small fibers that aggregate and crosslink into a woven net that captures red blood cells and other platelets to form a stable clot over the damage area

197
Q

what does thrombin do?

A

converts fibrinogen into fibrin

198
Q

what does the blood clot do?

A

plugs the injury and prevents blood loss until the wound can be repaired.

199
Q

____ is generated from ____ to break down a blood clot

A

plasmin from plasminogen

200
Q

can carbon dioxide be carried by hemoglobin?

A

yes

201
Q

during exercise, hemoglobin has a ____ affinity for O2

A

decreased

202
Q

An individual has antibodies for ____ alleles he or she does not have but an Rh negative individual ____

A

A or B blood type

does not create anti-Rh antibodies until after exposure to Rh positive blood

203
Q

why must carbon dioxide be transported to the lungs as other parts of the bicarbonate buffer system?

A

because CO2 is nonpolar and not particularly soluble

204
Q

SA-atria-AV-Bundle-Perkinje-ventricles

A

remember the atria and ventricles in there!

205
Q

both arteries and veins have a ____ endothelial lining

A

single-celled

206
Q

the greatest amount of resistance in the circulatory system comes from the ____

A

Arterioles: they are highly muscular and have the ability to contract and dilate to regulate blood pressure.

MCAT Bio (12 decks)

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