Bio #7 Flashcards
1
Q
jobs of the heart
A
- systemic blood flow
- pulmonary flow
2
Q
aorta
A
primary artery that leaves the heart with oxygenated blood
3
Q
coronary blood vessels
A
serve the heart
fall under systemic flow (cells of the heart)
4
Q
vein
A
blood toward the heart
5
Q
arterty
A
blood away from the heart
6
Q
name of the vessels supporting the heart
A
coronary vessels
systemic circulation
7
Q
name of the vessels supporting the lungs
A
bronchiole arteries
systemic circulation (some mixing of blood with pulmonary circulation)
8
Q
vasoconstriction ______ resistance
A
increases
9
Q
arteries have high _____ while veins have high _____
A
pressure
volume
10
Q
arteries have high _____ while veins have high _____
A
pressure
volume
11
Q
what is in the cardiovascular system
A
• The cardiovascular system consists of a muscular four-chambered heart, blood vessels, and blood
o The heart pumps blood through the vasculature which consists of arteries, capillaries, and veins.
12
Q
heart
A
four-chambered structure composed predominately of cardiac muscle
- has two pumps
- each side has an atrium and ventricle
- has electrical conduction
- contracts
13
Q
what are the two pumps of the heart called
A
pulmonary circulation
systemic circulation
14
Q
pulmonary circulation
A
Right side of the heart accepts deoxygenated blood from the body and moves it to the lungs via the pulmonary arteries.
15
Q
systemic circulation
A
left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins and forces it out of the body through the aorta.
16
Q
atria
A
thin-walled structures where blood is received from the venae cavae (deox blood entering right heart) or the pulmonary veins (ox blood entering the left heart)
Atria contracts and pushes blood into the ventricles.
17
Q
ventricles
A
- When ventricles fill they contract to push blood to the lungs (right ventricle) or to systemic circulation (left ventricle)
- Ventricles are more muscular than atria, need bigger push
18
Q
atrioventricular valves
A
tricuspid and mitral valves, separate the atria from the ventricles
19
Q
tricuspid valve
A
valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle (three leaflets)
20
Q
mitral valve
A
bicuspid valve
valve between the left atrium and the left ventricle (three leaflets)
21
Q
semilunar valves
A
pulmonary and aortic valve, separate the ventricles from the vasculature
22
Q
pulmonary valve
A
: the valve that separates the right ventricle from pulmonary circulation
23
Q
aortic valve
A
the valve that separates the left ventricle from the aorta.
24
Q
what do the valves do in the heart?
A
Valves prevent backward flow and create pressure necessary to push blood.
25
the semiluminar valves both have _____
3 leaflets
26
what is used to assess the status of a patient's heart?
EKG or ECG
27
what are the 4 electrically excitable structures in the heart?
sinoatrial node (SA) ==> atrioventricular node (AV) ==> bundle of His ==> purkinje fibers
28
sinoatrial node (SA)
* Generates 60-100 signals per minute without neurological input
* Cells located in right atrium.
* Depolarization causes the two atria to contract, atrial systole (contraction) results in an increase in atrial pressure that forces a little more blood into the ventricle (some flows in already due to ventricular relaxation)
* Known as atrial kick
29
atrial systole
contraction that results in an increase in atrial pressure that forces a little more blood into the ventricle (some flows in already due to ventricular relaxation)
30
is neurological input required to get the heart to pump?
Neurological input is only required to speed up heart rate or slow it down, not to get it started.
31
is neurological input required to get the heart to pump?
Neurological input is only required to speed up heart rate or slow it down, not to get it started.
32
Atrioventricular node (AV)
sits at junction between atria and ventricles.
| • Signal is delayed here to let the ventricles fill completely
33
bundle of His
embedded in the interventricular septum (wall).
34
purkinke fibers
distribute the electrical signal through the ventricular muscle.
cause ventricular contraction
35
intercalated discs
connects muscle cells, contain many gap junctions to connect cytoplasm of cells.
allows for coordinated ventricular contraction
36
what is the fancy name for heart attack and what is it?
myocardial infarcation
when there is a lack of blood flow through the coronary arteries so there is decreased oxygen to the cardiac muscle itself
37
what are the two phases of each heartbeat
systole and diastole
38
systole
ventricular contraction and closure of the AV valves occurs and blood is pumped out of the ventricles
39
diastole
the ventricles are relaxed, the semilunar valves are closed and blood from the atria fills the ventricles.
o The elasticity of the walls of the large arteries keeps diastolic blood pressure from plummeting to zero.
40
arteries carry blood _____ the heart
away from
41
cardiac output (CO)
the total blood volume pumped by a ventricle in a minute (either ventricle, same volume passing through)
• Product of heart rate (HR, beats per minute) and stroke volume (SV, volume of blood pumped per beat): CO = HR x SV
o For humans it is 5 L per minute.
42
heart rate (HR)
beats per minute
43
stroke volume (SV)
volume of blood pumped per beat
44
equation for cardiac output
CO = HR x SV
45
arteries
vessel in which blood travels away from the heart
• Aorta: largest
• Other major arteries include the carotids, subclavians, and renal arteries
• Coronary arteries perfuse the heart muscle.
46
what is the largest artery
aorta
47
arteries branch into ____ and then _____
arterioles
| capillaries
48
on the veinous side of the capillary is the ____ which join into _____
venules
| veins
49
endothelial cells
line all blood vessels.
• Maintains blood vessel by releasing chemicals that aid vasodilation and vasoconstriction
• Release chemicals when damaged to clot.
• Allow white blood cells to pass through to tissues during inflammatory response.
50
______ have more smooth muscle than ____
arteries
| veins
51
what are the 3 types of vasculature?
arteries
capillaries
veins
52
arteries
o Move blood away from the heart to the lungs and other parts of the body
o Only the pulmonary arteries and umbilical arteries contain deox blood
o Muscular and elastic which provides great resistance (left side of heart has to be more muscular)
53
The greatest amount of resistance is provided by the ___
arterioles.
| Arterioles are highly muscular and have the ability to contract and dilate in order to regulate blood pressure.
54
capillaries
connects circulatory system components to tissues
o Single endothelial layer and are very small.
o Allows easy diffusion of gases, nutrients, hormones and wastes.
55
The relative lack of smooth muscle in venous walls allows _____
stretching to store most of the blood in the body.
56
veins
• carry blood to heart
o Thin-walled, inelastic
o Only the pulmonary and umbilical veins contain ox blood.
o Venules: smaller venous structures that connect capillaries to the larger veins of the body.
o Veins must have structures to push blood forward and prevent backflow in the inferior vena cavae .
Valves keep it moving and clamp shut when it tries to go back.
o Small amount of smooth muscle in veins must rely on external source to push blood forward: skeletal muscles squeeze the veins as the muscles contract.
57
what are the only arteries to carry deoxygenated blood
pulmonary arteries and umbilical arteries
58
what are the only veins to carry oxygenated blood
pulmonary veins nd umbilical veins
59
there is ____ pressure at the bottom of the inferior vena cava
high pressure
60
how to veins keep blood moving
Veins must have structures to push blood forward and prevent backflow in the inferior vena cavae.
Valves keep it moving and clamp shut when it tries to go back.
Small amount of smooth muscle in veins must rely on external source to push blood forward: skeletal muscles squeeze the veins as the muscles contract.
61
describe the steps of circulation of blood throughout the body
1. Blood returns to the heart via the superior and inferior vena cava (SVC and IVC)
2. Into right atrium, through tricuspid valve into right ventricle
3. Contraction, through pulmonary valve
4. Into lungs, pulmonary arteries, smaller and smaller vessels to the capillaries and participates in gas exchange.
5. Into pulmonary veins, carry blood to left side of heart.
6. Left atrium, through mitral valve, enters the left ventricle
7. Contraction, blood from left ventricle goes through aortic valve to aorta/
8. Blood enters arteries, arterioles, and capillaries.
9. Gas exchange at capillaries, blood enters venules, then empty into SVC and IVC
10. Repeat
62
portal system
blood passes through two capillary beds before returning to the heart. These capillary beds are in series.
63
portal system
blood passes through two capillary beds before returning to the heart.
64
what are the 3 portal systems in the body
hepatic portal system
hypophyseal portal system
renal portal system
65
hepatic portal system
blood leaving capillary beds in the walls of the gut passes through the hepatic portal vein before reaching the capillary beds in the liver
66
hypophyseal portal system
blood leaving capillary beds in the hypothalamus travels to capillary in the anterior pituitary to allow for paracrine secretion of releasing hormones.
67
renal portal system
blood leaving the glomerulus travels through an efferent arteriole before surrounding the nephron in a capillary networks called the vasa recta.
68
vasa recta capillaries
The vasa recta capillaries envelope the nephron tubule and then they converge into the renal vein.
69
what is the composition of blood?
o 55% liquid, 45% cells
70
plasma
liquid portion of blood, an aqueous mixture of nutrients, salts, respiratory gases, hormones, and blood proteins.
71
erythrocytes
red blood cells, transport oxygen and carbon dioxide
• Each erythrocyte contains molecules of hemoglobin, which can bind four molecules of oxygen each
• Biconcave which allows them to squeeze through tight spaces and increase surface area for gas exchange.
• When they mature, the nuclei, mitochondria, and other membrane bound organelles are lost.
o Makes room for more hemoglobin
o Rely on glycolysis and fermentation for ATP
72
measurements of erythrocytes
o Hemoglobin: how much is in blood
| o Hematocrit: measure of how much of the blood sample consists of red blood cells, as a percentage.
73
leukocytes
: white blood cells, production of antibodies and defense against infection
• Far fewer in number than erythrocytes, but increase in number to fight off infections.
74
granulocytes
```
leukocytes
granular leukocytes (contain granules that are visible by microscopy) and include: neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.
Contain a variety of compounds that are toxic to invading microbes.
```
75
agranulocytes
leukocytes
no granules, consist of: lymphocytes and monocytes
Lymphocytes: important for specific immune response, the body’s fight against particular pathogens.
• Primary responders and memory cells for later action
76
B cells
leukocytes
agranulocytes
mature in bone marrow, antibodies
77
T cell
leukocytes
agranulocytes
mature in the thymus, kill virally infected cells and activate other immune cells.
78
monocytes
leukocytes
agranulocytes
: phagocytize foreign matter
• Once they leave the bloodstream and enter an organ, known as macrophages.
• Different organs have different names: microglia (brain), Langerhans (skin), and osteoclasts (bone)
79
thrombocytes
Platelets, blood clotting,
| • Cell fragments or shards released from cells in bone marrow known as megakaryocytes. Megakaryocytes produce platelets.
80
megakaryocytes
produce platelets
81
Hematopoiesis
: production of blood cells and platelets, triggered by hormones, growth factors, and cytokines.
* Erythropoietin: secreted by the kidney and stimulates red blood cell development.
* Thrombopoietin: secreted by the liver and kidney and stimulates platelet development.
82
Erythropoietin
secreted by the kidney and stimulates red blood cell development.
83
Thrombopoietin
secreted by the liver and kidney and stimulates platelet development.
84
antigens
surface proteins expressed on the surface of red blood cells.
Could be any target to which the immune system can react.
Two main families: ABO antigens and Rh factor.
85
ABO antigens
Comprised of 3 alleles for blood type
A and B alleles are codominant.
The O allele is recessive to both A and B alleles.
The 4 blood types are A, B, AB, and O
• Can be written IA, IB and i, or A, B, and O
86
universal donor
donors with O blood type because they expressed neither antigen variant and will not initiate an immune response.
Recipient who is Type O can only receive type O
87
universal recipient
type AB blood, no blood antigen is foreign to AB individuals.
Blood transfusions are usually just the red blood cells.
88
what do blood transfusions generally consist of?
red blood cells
89
hemolysis
the rupture or destruction of red blood cells
90
hemolysis
the rupture or destruction of red blood cells
91
Rh factor
: also a surface protein expressed on red blood cells.
Rh+ or Rh- refers to the presence or absence of allele D
Rh positivity follows autosomal dominant inheritance, one positive allele is enough for the protein to be expressed.
Erythroblastosis fetalis: if the mother is Rh- and the fetus is Rh+, the mother will begin to produce Rh+ antibodies as some fetal blood comes in contact with the mother’s blood. Not a problem for the first child but then for the second child the anti-Rh antibodies will cross the placenta and attack the fetal blood cells.
• Not a problem for blood type because blood type antibodies cannot cross the placenta.
92
Rh positivity follows _______
autosomal dominant inheritance
93
what is the safest type of blood to give
O-
94
erythroblastosis fetalis
: if the mother is Rh- and the fetus is Rh+, the mother will begin to produce Rh+ antibodies as some fetal blood comes in contact with the mother’s blood. Not a problem for the first child but then for the second child the anti-Rh antibodies will cross the placenta and attack the fetal blood cells.
• Not a problem for blood type because blood type antibodies cannot cross the placenta.
95
Rh- individuals produce ____ antibodies
Rh+ antibodies
96
can blood antibodies cross the placenta?
No
97
Can Rh antibodies cross the placenta?
Yes
98
what are the 4 important jobs of the cardiovascular system?
maintenance of blood pressure, gas and solute exchange, coagulation, and thermoregulation.
99
blood pressure
o Must remain relatively high to propel blood forward but hypertension (high blood pressure) can damage blood vessels and organs.
100
how is blood pressure measured?
o Blood pressure is measured based on the force per unit area exerted on the wall of the blood vessel.
Measured using a sphygmomanometer.
• Measure the gauge pressure in the systemic circulation.
Measure of ratio of systolic to diastolic pressures
Normal BP is 90-120/60-80
101
what is normal blood pressure?
90-120/60-80
102
where does the largest drop in blood pressure occur?
The largest drop in blood pressure occurs across the arterioles.
• Important because the capillaries are thin-walled and unable to withstand the pressure of the arterial side of the vasculature.
103
how do you calculate the pressure differential across the circulation?
DeltaP = CO x TPR
• Delta P is the pressure differential across the circulation, CO is the cardiac output, and TPR is the total peripheral (vascular) resistance
104
what two factors determine the resistance of the vasculature?
• Cross section and length can determine resistance of the vasculature
105
capillaries are like _____
resistors in parallel
106
how is blood pressure regulated in the body?
o Blood pressure is regulated using baroreceptors in the walls of the vasculature.
Neurons that detect changes in mechanical forces on the walls of the vessel
Detect blood pressure and osmolarity irregularities (constrict/dilate vessel or get more water released back out of the ducts in the kidneys)
107
atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
hormone released from atrial cells, lowers blood pressure by aiding in loss of salt and water from the nephron.
108
what diffuses into and out of blood at the capillaries?
Diffuse out of blood: oxygen and nutrients, hormones
Diffuse into blood: carbon dioxide, hydrogen ions, urea, and ammonia, hormones
o Works by concentration gradients
109
hemoglobin
Carried by hemoglobin in the blood
• Composed of 4 cooperative subunits, each with heme group that binds to oxygen molecule.
• Binds to iron in the heme group which undergoes a change in oxidation state.
• Oxygen saturation: the percentage of hemoglobin molecules carrying oxygen, measured using a finger probe.
110
oxygen saturation
the percentage of hemoglobin molecules carrying oxygen, measured using a finger probe.
111
describe the process of hemoglobin working
Diffuses into the alveolar capillaries, first oxygen binds to heme group and induces a conformational shift in the shape of hemoglobin from taut to relaxed and increases affinity for more oxygen molecules. Feedback-like.
• When the hemoglobin loses an oxygen, feedback like for less affinity at the rest of the binding sites.
Hemoglobin is 100% saturated in the lungs, 80% saturated in the tissues at rest, and 30% saturated in the tissues during exercise.
112
carbon dioxide
Carried by hemoglobin to the lungs, lower affinity for CO2 than oxygen
Mostly appears as bicarbonate ion HCO3-.
Red blood cell utilizes the enzyme carbonic anhydrase to combine CO2 and water to make carbonic acid (H2CO3). Dissociates into HCO3- and H+ which are soluble in water and can be transported to the lungs for excretion.
• At the lungs, reverse reaction occurs and CO2 can be exhaled.
Protons (low pH) can bind to hemoglobin and reduced its affinity for oxygen.
• Associated with oxygen demand.
• More oxygen dissociates and releases at tissue.
113
carbonic anhydrase
Red blood cell utilizes the enzyme carbonic anhydrase to combine CO2 and water to make carbonic acid (H2CO3). Dissociates into HCO3- and H+ which are soluble in water and can be transported to the lungs for excretion.
• At the lungs, reverse reaction occurs and CO2 can be exhaled.
114
oxyhemoglobin curve describe
oxyhemoglobin curve shift to the right: Bohr effect
Shift to the right is due to: increase partial pressure of CO2, increases H+ (decreased pH), increased temperature, increased 2,3-BPG
Left shifted curve means HIGHER AFFINITY of hemoglobin for oxygen.
115
Does HbF or HbA have higher affinity for oxygen
HbF (fetal hemoglobin)
116
discuss cardiovascular system and nutrients, waste, and hormone
o Carbohydrates, amino acids, and fats are all absorbed in the small intestine and then are circulated to where they are needed in the body.
o Waste travels down concentration gradient to capillaries and then transported to kidneys where it is filtered and excreted.
o Hormones are released into circulation near the organ that produced them and then travel to target tissue.
117
what causes hydrostatic pressure versus osmotic pressure
Hydrostatic pressure: caused by pressure generated from the heart and the elastic arteries. Fluid forced into interstitial through capillary walls (which are leaky by design)
Osmotic pressure: caused by the number of particles dissolved in the plasma, sucking pressure that draws water back into the blood stream.
118
hydrostatic pressure
the force per unit area that the blood exerts against the vessel walls. Generated by the contraction of the heart and the elasticity of the arteries.
Pushes fluid out of the capillary and into the interstitium
119
osmotic pressure
sucking pressure by solutes as they attempt to draw water into the bloodstream.
Typically called oncotic pressure as it is attributed to plasma proteins
120
Capillary: On arteriole side of a capillary bed, hydrostatic pressure is _____and osmotic pressure ____.
very large, is small
121
Capillary: Arteriole pressure ______ as you move toward the venule end while osmotic pressure ______, eventually making the osmotic pressure greater than the hydrostatic pressure.
decreases
| remains the same
122
Capillary: Arteriole end: net fluid ____. Venule end: net fluid ___
out
| in
123
starling forces
the balance of the opposing pressures is essential for maintaining the proper fluid volumes and solute concentrations inside and outside the vasculature.
Edema: accumulation of excess fluid in the interstitium.
Some fluid (lymph) is returned to the circulatory system via the thoracic duct.
124
how does lymph fluid return to the circulatory system?
thoracic duct
125
edema
accumulation of excess fluid in the interstitium.
126
coagulation
blood clot
| Platelets protect the vascular system in the event of damage by forming a clot
127
clot
composed of both coagulation factors (proteins) and platelets, and they minimize blood loss.
128
steps of coagulation
o Endothelium is damaged, exposes underlying connective tissue which contains collagen and protein called tissue factor.
o Platelets come in contact with exposed collagen, sense injury, and release their contents and begin to aggregate
o Liver releases coagulation factors and starts cascade.
End of this cascade results in the activation of prothrombin to form thrombin via thromboplastin.
Thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin.
Fibrin forms small fibers that cross link into a woven net that captures red blood cells and other platelets, stabilizes them.
129
what breaks down a blood clot
Plasmin is generated from plasminogen and breaks down the clot.
130
what type of muscle is the heart made out of?
cardiac muscle
131
what type of muscle is the diaphragm made out of?
skeletal muscle
132
are ventricles or the atriums more muscular and why?
the ventricles are more muscular and this is because they have to push blood through the rest of the body
133
both semilunar valves have ____ leaflets
three
134
where does impulse initiation occur and does it require neurological input?
occurs at the SA (sinoatrial node) and requires no neurological input
135
what is the atrial kick
the atrial kick is the extra blood that goes from the atrium to the ventricle during systole (most blood flows this way passively)
136
where is the sinoatrial node located?
in the wall of the right atrium
137
where is the atrioventricular node located?
at the junction of the atria and ventricles
138
where is the electrical signal during heart contracts delayed?
at the AV node
139
where is the bundle of His and its branches located?
in the interventricular septum (wall)
140
draw the EKG diagram
do it
141
the heart ________ electrical signals on its own but the brain is responsible for _____
generates
| speeding up or slowing down heart rate
142
what does the vagus nerve do?
it is responsible for parasympathetic control of the heart
143
the _____ of the major arteries is responsible for maintaining adequate_____
elasticity
| blood pressure
144
the pulmonary and systemic circulation are linked in ____
series
145
the sympathetic nervous system will ______ cardiac output
increase
146
for humans, cardiac output is _____
5 L per minute
147
explain the lub dub of the heart
first sound is the AV valves closing at the start of systole and the second sound is the semilunar valves closing at the end of systole and start of diastole
148
what are the only arteries that do not contain oxygenated blood?
the pulmonary arteries and the umbilical arteries
149
the volume of blood in arterial circulation is usually _____ than venous circulation but the cardiac output is the same
less
150
in the lower extremities, high _____ is used to force blood through veins
pressure
151
the _______ returns blood from the portions of the body above the heart while the _____ returns blood from the portions of body below the heart
superior vena cava
| inferior vena cava
152
do arteries contain valves?
| is there smooth muscle in veins?
no
| yes
153
all blood cells are formed from _______ which originate in ______
hematopoeitic stem cells
| bone marrow
154
blood is ______ percent cells
45%
155
what are the benefits of red blood cells being biconcave?
allows them to fit in capillaries and increase cell surface area for gas exchange
156
When red blood cells mature, they lose 3 things. what are they?
nuclei, mitochondria, and other membrane bound organelles.
this means that they cannot perform oxidative phosphorylation and they cannot divide.
157
what common measurements are taken of blood samples and what do they tell use?
hemoglobin: hemoglobin concentration in units of g/dL
hematocrit: in units of percentage of red blood cells in the blood sample.
158
compare the number of leukocytes to the number of erythrocytes in blood
there are a ton more erythrocytes
159
where do B cells and T cells mature?
B cells: bone marrow
| T cells: thymus
160
once monocytes leave the blood stream to their respective tissue, they are called _____
macrophages
161
what are the names of the macrophages in the central nervous system, the skin, and the bones?
microglia
Langerhans cells
osteoclasts
162
what is another name for platelets?
thrombocytes
163
platelets are actually ______ released from megakaryocyts
shards from cells in bone marrow
164
what is released from the kidneys to promote red blood cell developmet?
erythropoietin
165
what is released from the liver and kidneys to stimulate platelet production?
thrombopoeitin
166
what are the 4 different blood types?
A, B, AB, and O
167
type O blood cells are the universal donor because they _______
do not express either antigen variant and therefore will not illicit an immune response
168
what is it called when you give the person the wrong blood type?
hemolysis
169
depending on blood type, a person will produce _____
```
antibodies to whatever antigens are not expressed by their blood type
Example:
A blood type: antibodies to B
AB blood type: no antibodies
O blood type: antibodies to A and B
```
170
Rh positivity follows ____ inheritence
autosomal dominant
171
erythroblastosis fetalis
if a mother starts producing Rh antibodies after being exposed to Rh+ during the birth of her first child, these antibodies can cross the placenta and start attacking the Rh+ of her second child.
172
if you have Rh+ blood, can you receive blood from an Rh- individual?
yes
173
another name for white blood cells
leukocytes (lymphocytes are for the specific immune response)
174
which of the blood cells do not contain nuclei?
platelets and red blood cells
175
what are the main roles of the cardiovascular system?
maintenance of blood pressure, gas and solute exchange, coagulation, and thermoregulation
176
what is the device used to measure blood pressure?
sphygmomanometer
| measures gauge pressure in systemic circulation
177
what is blood pressure
it is the force per unit area exerted on the wall of blood vessels
178
how is blood pressure expressed?
systolic (ventricular contraction) / diastolic (ventricular relaxation)
179
pressure gradually drops from the ____ to the ____ with the largest drop at the ____ because ____
arterial to veinous circulation
arterioles
because the thin-walled capillaries would not be able to withstand the pressure of the arterial side of the vasculature.
180
compare blood pressure to Ohm's law
V = IR
deltaP = CO x TPR
pressure differential across circulation equals cardiac output x total peripheral (vascular) resistance
181
how is the resistance in a blood vessel at play?
resistance is effected by length and cross sectional area
greater length: more resistance
larger cross-sectional area: less resistance
182
compare capillary beds to physics
they are like resistors in parallel
183
opening capillary beds will ______ vascular resistance
decrease
184
what is the name of the group in hemoglobin that binds oxygen molecules?
heme group (actually bind to the heme groups central iron atom which can change its oxidation state)
185
how are oxygen levels in the blood measured?
```
partial pressure of oxygen using a blood sample OR
oxygen saturation (percentage of hemoglobin molecules carrying oxygen) can be taken using a finger probe. Healthy people have over 97%
```
186
what form of allosteric regulation does hemoglobin use with oxygen?
cooperative binding
results in the classic sigmoidal oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve.
187
what is the name of the enzyme that combines carbon dioxide and water to carbonic acid?
carbonic anhydrase
188
what is the Bohr effect?
when blood pH is low, protons can bind to hemoglobin and reduce hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen
189
what causes the oxyhemoglobin curve to shift to the right?
results in a lower affinity for oxygen: H+, low pH, increased CO2, increased temperature, increased 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate
the opposites will result in a shift to the left
190
compare the affinity for oxygen of fetal hemoglobin and maternal hemoglobin
fetal hemoglobin has higher affinity, has to pull oxygen off of adult hemoglobin
191
how do the kidney and lungs work together regarding the bicarbonate buffer system?
if pH is too high (hyperventilation), kidney will release bicarbonate to reduce it to normal
if pH is too low because the kidney cannot get rid of H+, breathing rate will increase to blow off CO2 and increase the pH to normal
192
what is osmotic pressure sometimes referred to as?
oncotic pressure (because most of the particles are proteins)
193
where is some of the fluid in the interstitium lost to?
the lymphatic system
194
when the endothelium is damaged, what is exposed?
underlying connective tissue with collagen and a protein called tissue factor
195
at the end of the coagulation cascade, ____ is activated to form ____ by _____. ____ converts ____ into ____
prothrombin
thrombin
thromboplastin
thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin
196
what does fibrin do?
forms small fibers that aggregate and crosslink into a woven net that captures red blood cells and other platelets to form a stable clot over the damage area
197
what does thrombin do?
converts fibrinogen into fibrin
198
what does the blood clot do?
plugs the injury and prevents blood loss until the wound can be repaired.
199
____ is generated from ____ to break down a blood clot
plasmin from plasminogen
200
can carbon dioxide be carried by hemoglobin?
yes
201
during exercise, hemoglobin has a ____ affinity for O2
decreased
202
An individual has antibodies for ____ alleles he or she does not have but an Rh negative individual ____
A or B blood type
| does not create anti-Rh antibodies until after exposure to Rh positive blood
203
why must carbon dioxide be transported to the lungs as other parts of the bicarbonate buffer system?
because CO2 is nonpolar and not particularly soluble
204
SA-atria-AV-Bundle-Perkinje-ventricles
remember the atria and ventricles in there!
205
both arteries and veins have a ____ endothelial lining
single-celled
206
the greatest amount of resistance in the circulatory system comes from the ____
Arterioles: they are highly muscular and have the ability to contract and dilate to regulate blood pressure.
