BIO 204 -- Plants Flashcards
1
Q
Fact
A
Observation that is repeatedly confirmed.
2
Q
Hypothesis
A
Statement about a natural phenomena that can be tested, then supported or denied.
3
Q
Theory
A
Highly probable, well-tested explanation of a natural phenomena based on observations and experiments.
4
Q
Scientific Method
A
Observation, question, hypotheses, empirical test, conclusion.
5
Q
Evolution
A
Descent with modification.
6
Q
Gregor Mendel
A
Founded the field of genetics.
7
Q
Genetics
A
Explain how traits are passed from parent to offspring.
8
Q
Chromosome
A
Single strand of DNA, 1000s of genes.
9
Q
Gene
A
Information that codes for inherited traits. (Position of gene on chromosome = locus).
10
Q
Genome
A
Collection of genetic information in a cell.
11
Q
Chromosome Theory
A
Developed by Walter Sutton and Theodore Boveri. Recognizes the chromosems as genetic material.
12
Q
How many chromosomes are in humans?
A
46 total chromosomes. (2 pairs of 23).
13
Q
Gametes
A
1 set of chromosomes. (1n = haploid).
14
Q
Somatic
A
All chromosomes except for gametes. (2n = diploid).
15
Q
Polypeptide
A
Chain of amino acid.
16
Q
Chromatin
A
DNA + protein (histone).
17
Q
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
A
Directs cellular functions (protein synthesis) and contains hereditary material (genes).
3 MAIN PARTS:
1) nitrogenous bases - A, T, G, C
2) deoxyribose - sugar
3) phosphate - PO4
18
Q
Nitrogenous Bases
A
T- thymine, A - adenine, C - cytosine, G - guanine
(T+A and C+G)
19
Q
Chargaff’s Rule
A
Nucleotide base composition vary among species.
%A=%T and %G=%C
%A+%T+%G+%C=100%
20
Q
Crick and Watson
A
Determined bouble helix structure of DNA using Rosalind Franklin’s DNA photo.
21
Q
Gene expression
A
Process where DNA dictates proetin synthesis which leads to specific traits.
22
Q
Phenotype
A
Observable trait. (eye color, hair color, etc.)
23
Q
Genotype
A
Genetic code for phenotype.
24
Q
Inherited DNA
A
Programs for synthesis of polypeptide that contribute to proteins.
25
Transcription
Making of RNA from DNA, takes place in eukaryotes.
26
Translation
Making of popypeptide protein from RNA, takes place in cytoplasm. Performed by RNA and ribosome. (U replaces T).
27
Codon
Triplet code of nucleotides to code one amino acid in mRNA. (ex. AAA, UAU, GCG)
*3 letter words to make RNA language*
28
Mutation
Changes to genetic code that are responsible for the production of new genes.
29
Allele
New mutated version of a gene.
30
Point mutation
Change of single nucleotide base.
2 types: subsitution (CAG --> CTG), insertion and deletion (CAG --> CAAG or CG)
31
Silent mutation
Change in genotype, no change in phenotype.
32
Missense mutation
Change in genotype leading to a change in the amino acid.
33
Nonsense mutation
Change in genotype that codes a stop codon --> nonfunctional protein as a result.
*like a period in the middle of a sentence*
34
Frameshift mutation
Insertions/deletions that throw off the triplet reading frame.
ex. AUG TAC CCA --> A UGT ACC CA
35
Modern definition of evolution
Change in allele frequency within a poplation from one generation to the next.
36
Uniformitarianism
Laws of chemisty and physics have remained the same thoughout all of Earth's history.
*the present is the key to the past*
37
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
Naturalist, argued inheritance of required characteristics.
38
HMS Beagle
Voyage Darwin went on to the Galapagos where he developed his theory of natural selection.
39
Natural selection
Heritable traits beneficial to survival are slected and become more common in a population.
40
Darwin's Postulates (reworded)
1. Mutations generate new genotypes *phenotypic variation*
2. Individuals pass their genes to offspring *heritable*
3. Some individuals with favorable phenotypes are more able to pass their genes to the next generation ("fitness") *adaptation increases fitness*
4. Individuals that survive have genotypes that code for phenotypes that best adapt them to the environment *nonrandom*
41
Fitness
Ability to survive in environment, determined by environment, quantifiable but relative among individuals.
42
Agents of natural selection
Predator/prey, competition for resources, disease and arasites, mating opputunities (sexual selection).
43
Mechanisms for change in allele frequency:
Mutation, migration, genetic drift, natural selection.
44
Genetic drift
Random sampling error over generations.
45
Gene flow (migration)
Genes move from one population to another.
46
Genetic bottleneck
Sharp reduction in population size due to environment events, leads to genetic drift.
47
Founder effect
Small population breaks off from one another.
48
Microevolution
Evolution within a single population.
49
Macroevolution
Evolution above the species level, caused by speciation.
50
Speciation
Process by which new species arise.
51
Species
Groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural population which are reproductivley isolated
*^Biological Species Concept*
52
Reproductive isolation
Barriers that impede members from producting viable and fertile offspring.
53
Prezygotic barriers
Before fertilization
habitat isolation, temporal isolation, behaviroal isolation, mechanical isolation, gametic isolation.
54
Postzygotic barriers
After fertilization
reduced hybrid viability, reduced hybrid fertility, hybrid breakdown.
55
Allopatric speciation
Occurs in small population that are physically isolated.
Caused by dispersion (indiviuals migrate) or vicariance (physical barrier).
56
Sympatric speciation
Continuous population, no geographic isolation.
Caused by low gene flow --> segments of population become reproductivley isolated.
57
Systematics
Study of biodiversity and classification of organisms.
Phylogentic systemics: include common ancestory.
58
Taxonomy
Ordering and naming of organisms.
*Description, identification, nomenclature, classification*
59
Taxon
Any named group of organisms.
60
Binomial nomenclature
Two word naming system for species.
"genus species" -- ex. Homo spaiens
61
Overall similarity
Grouping method to classify species.
62
Homology
Similar traits in organisms derived from a common ancestor.
63
Homoplasy
Silimar traits due to functionality, not ancestory.
Leads to convergant evolution.
64
Convergant evolution
Similarity in traits independent of ancestory.
65
Fossil
Any evidence of past life, reveal perpetual changes.
Relative age: closest to surfafce = youngest
Absolute age: radiometric dating, constance decay rates
66
Homeotic genes
Genes that regulate development of anatomical structure.
67
Cladogram
Branching diagram of ancestors and decendants.
68
Apomorphy
New trait in a taxa.
69
Synapomorphy
Trait shared in 2 or more taxa.
70
3 Clades of Life
Bacteria, archea, eukarya
71
Monophyletic group
Group with an ancestor and all of its decendants.
72
Paraphyletic group
Group with an ancestor and some decendants.
73
Prokaryotes
Bacteria and archea
- lack nuclei, membrane-enclosed organelles, cytoskeletons
- have circulare chromosomes
74
Bacteria traits
1) Important for human and animal welfare
2) Used for biotechnology, fermentation, digestion
3) Bacteria are pathogens -- cause dieases
75
Archea traits
1) Live in extreme environment (extremophiles)
76
Morphological shapes
Cocci (circular), Bacilli (rod-shaped), Spiral
77
Cell wall compositions
Bacteria cells walls have peptidoglycan.
Archea cell walls lack peptidoglycan.
Eukaryote call walls have cellulose/chitin.
78
Gram staining
Used to identify bacteria based on peptidoglycan content.
79
Gram positive
Traps crystal violet, peptidoglycan on surface.
80
Gram negative
Does not trap crystal violet, peptidoglycan deeper.
81
Capsule
Protein layer covering most prokaryotes, protects cells from being consumed and dehydrated.
82
Prokaryotic reproduction
Very samll, reproduce by binary fission, short generation time (about 20 mins.).
83
Aerobic
Require oxygen.
84
Anarobic
Require obsence of oxygen.
85
Obligate aerobes
Must have oxygen.
86
Obligate anarobes
Oxygen is poisonous (uses fermentation instead).
87
Facultative anarobes
Can survive with or without oxygen.
88
Phototrophs
Obtain energy from light.
89
Chemotrophs
Obtain energy from chemicals.
90
Autotrophs
Require CO2 as carbon source.
91
Heterotrophs
Require organic nutrients as carbon source.
92
Hierarchy of biological organisms (least to most complex)
Molecule, organelle, cell, tissues, organ, organ system, organism, population, community, ecosystem.
93
Eukaryotes
Organisms with membrane bound organelles, membrane bound nuclueus, and linear DNA.
94
Theory of Endosymbiosis
Aerobic and photosynthetic prokaryotes are engulfed by large anarobic prokaryotes and become mitochondria and chloroplasts.
*By Lynn Margulis*
95
4 Eukarya Supergourps
Excavata, SAR clade, archaeplastida, unikonta.
96
Protists
Mostly unicellular eukaryotes, symbiotic, nutritionally diverse:
- phototrophs
- autotrophs
- mixotrophs
97
"Seaweed"
Multicellular, photosynthetic, autotrophic producers.
*ex. red algae, brown algae, gold algae*
98
Archaeplastida
Multicellular plants and gree algae.
99
Fungi
Unicellular or multicellular, decomposers, eukaryotes (unikonta group), very diverse, cell walls made of chitin.
100
Saprobes
Living off of dead/decaying organic material.
101
Importance of fungi
1) decomposers -- break down organic material, cellulose, lignin
2) mutualistic symbionts -- mycorrhizae, endophytes
3) parasites/pathogens
4) economically useful
102
Fungal structure
Hyphae: thin string in body of fungi
Mycellium: network of hyphae thoughout the fungi
103
Septate hyphae
Hyphae with nuclei, pores, and septum.
*the divided hyphae*
104
Coenocytic hyphae
Hyphae with a cell wall and nuclei.
*the undivided hyphae*
105
Fungal reproduction
Sexual (with fusion) or asexual (without fusion), both with spores.
106
Spores
Haploid cell that can germinate to produce a multicellular individual without fusion.
107
Asexual reproduction
Mycellium --> spore production --> germination
108
Fungal Sexual reproduction
Mycellium --> plasmogamy --> heterokaryotic stage --> karyogomy --> zygote --> meiosis --> spore production --> germination
109
Fungi taxa
Chytrids, zoopagomycetes, mucoromycetes, ascomycetes, basidiomycetes.
Main apomorphies: All have chitin and absorbative nutrition.
110
Chytrids
Have zoospores (flagella), aquatic saprobes/parasites, may cause chytidiomycosis.
111
Zoopyomycetes and Mucoromycetes
Live in soil, parasitize on insects, reproduce sexually (zygosprangia) or asexually (sporangia).
112
Ascomycetes
Have ascus (sacs) with ascospores, uncicellular or multicellular, resproduce sexually (ascocarps) or asexually (conidia).
113
Basidiomycetes
Club fungi, decomposers, mutualistic relationship with plant roots, reproduce sexually (basidiocarp) or asexually (fragmentation).
114
Embryophytes
Land plants.
Have apical meristems, cuticles, thick spore walls, gametangia, alternation of generations, and dependent embryos.
115
Apical meristems
Localized region of growth.
116
Green algae
Chlorophytes/charophytes, unicellular or multicellular, types: colonial, filamentous, thalloid
Have chlorplasts, chlorophyll a & b, store starch, cellulose in cell walls, thylakoids in stacks (grana)
Important for biofuels and as producers.
117
Cuticle
Waxy covering, prevents dessication and water loss.
118
Thick spore walls
Prevent spore dessication.
119
Gametangia
Cases that enclose gametes.
- archaegonia have eggs
- antheridia have sperm
120
Alternation of generations
Gametophyte (n) and sporophyte (2n) stages.
Gametophyte is haploid --> mitosis --> haploid gametes --> fusion of gametes --> diploid sorophyte --> meiosis --> haploid spores
121
Dependent embryos
Contained in protective structure, parent provides nutritents, multicellular.
122
"Byrophytes"
Non-vascular plants.
3 types: Liverworts, hornworts, mosses.
Paraphyletic group, gametophyte dominant, motile sperm (need H2O), no vascular tissue.
123
Stomata
Regulate gas exchange and water retention, found in mosses, hornworts, and vascular plants.
124
Tracheophytes
Vascular plants.
Sporophyte dominant, lignified vasuclar tissue (xylem/phloem).
125
Vasuclar tissues
Duct system for conducting fluids and nutrients, allows plant to grow strong/tall.
126
Xylem
Conducts water and minerals, tube-shaped cells called tracheids.
127
Phloem
Distribute sugars, amino acids, organic products.
128
Plant organ systems
Shoots (stems/leaves/reproductive organs) and roots.
129
Leaves
Organs that increase surface area of plants, capture sunlight used for photosynthesis.
130
Microphylls
Leaves with a single vein.
131
Megaphylls
Leaves with highly branched vascular system.
132
Sporophylls
Modified leaves with sporangia (containing spores).
Sori: cluster of sporangia
133
Strobili
Cone structures formed from groups of sporphylls.
134
Roots
Anchor vascular plants, absorb water and nutrients.
135
Seedless vascular plants
Evolved during Devonian and Carboniferous periods, formed first forests, increased photosynthesis rates --> CO2 decrease --> cooler temperatures
*Carboniferous forests eventually became coal.*
136
Spermatophyta
Seed plants.
Domiant on earth, reduced gametophytes, heterospory, seeds, ovules and pollen.
137
Seeds
Embryo and nutrients surrounded by seed coat.
*Embryo + Food = Seed*
138
Seed significance
1) Protects embryo
2) Provides nutrition for embryo
3) Disperses embryo -- wind, water, animal dispersal
4) Dormancy mechanism -- seed is dormant until time of germination
139
Reduced gametophyte
Develop within walls of spores, retained within tissues of parent sporophyte, gameotphyte dependent on sporophyte.
*Water is not needed for fertilization!*
140
Heterospory
2 types of spores:
1) microspore -- male
2) megaspore -- female
141
Pollen
Derived from microspores, encolsed in pollen wall.
142
Ovule
Immature, unfertilized seed, consists of megasporagium and megaspore and protective integuments.
*gymnosperm: 1 integument*
*angiosperm: 2 integument*
143
Micropyle
Opening to allow pollen (ie. sperm) to enter ovule --> fertilization/pollenation.
144
Gymnosperms
Permian era, suited for dry conditions, main food for herbivorous dinosaurs
*"naked sperm"*
4 clades: conifers, ginkgos, gnetos, cycads
145
Cycadophyta
- large cones
- pinnatley compound leaves
- mainly tropical
- male cones produce pollen, female cones produce ovules
146
Ginkgophyta
- two lobed fan-like leaves
- high air pollution tolerance
- only 1 species: ginkgo biloba
147
Gnetophyta
- adapt to dry areas
- little cones
- only 3 types: ephedra, gnetum, welwitchia
148
Coniferophyta
- cones
- needle-like leaves
- highly branched
- evergreen (photosythesize all year)
- dominant in high elevation
- oldest living organisms!
ex. pine trees, redwoods, sequoia, fir, cypress
149
Angiosperms
Flowering plants
- largest group of land plants
- evolved in Jurassic period
- economically impotant
Apomorphies: flowers, fruits, ovules/seeds, double fertilization, specialized conductive cells, sporophyte dominant
150
Flower anatomy
- Sepals: enclose the flower
- Petals: attract pollinators
- Stamen: produce pollen
- Carpel: produce ovules
151
Stamen
Male reproductive organ, staked called a filament with a sac called an anther with pollen
152
Carpel
Female reproductive organ, ovargy at base and a style leading to a stigma
153
Angiosperm pollination
Pollen grain lands on stigma --> pollen tube opens --> sperm enters ovule through micropyle --> double fertilization --> triploid (3n) endosperm develops --> embryo
- by wind, water, or animals
154
Flower adaptations
Flowers coevolve with specific pollinators to increase pollination.
- Red, sweet nectar = birds
- Brown, smells bad = flies
- Purple/brown = insects
- White = moths and bats
155
Triploid endosperm
Nutritie tissues in seeds, extra set of chromosomes may help with rapid development and more genetic variation
156
Fruit
Mature ovary, seeds with accessory tissue, pericarp (ovary wall) may be highly variable
157
Seed dormancy
Allows seed to germinate when conditions are favorable for seedling growth
158
Pollination
Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma
- by wind, water, animals
159
Perfect flower
A flower that has all 4 of its floral organs.
160
Imperfect flower
A flower lacking one or more of its floral organs.
161
Mechanisms to prevent angiosperm self-fertilization:
1) monecious species -- incomplete flower
2) stamen and carpel mature at different times
3) self-incompatibility: plant rejects its own pollen
162
Fruit types
1) simple -- pea
2) aggregate -- raspberry
3) multiple -- pineapple
4) accessory -- apple
163
Angiosperm diversity
Monocot or eudicot.
164
Monocot characteristics
1 cotyledon, parallel veination, scattered vascular tissue, root system, pollen grains with 1 opening, flower in multiples of 3
*ex. palms, orchids, grasses*
165
Eudicot characteristics
2 cotyledon, netlike veination, vascular tissue in rings, taproot, pollen grains with 3 openings, flowers in multiples of 4/5
*ex. roses, legumes, daisies, oaks*
