BIO 204 -- Animals Flashcards
1
Q
Animals
A
Multicellular eukaryotes, no cell wall, heterotrophs.
2
Q
Heterotrophs
A
Ingest their food, rather than absorb it.
3
Q
Multicellular advantages
A
1) divisions of labor
2) more efficient respiration
3) larger growth
4) damaged calls can be repaired
4
Q
Collagen
A
Protein that holds groups of cells together.
5
Q
Tissues
A
Unit of cells that function together.
6
Q
Sexual reproduction
A
Used by most animals, diploid dominant.
fertilization = zygote in blastula –> gastrulation –> endoderm/ectoderm
7
Q
Embryonic germ layers
A
Cell layers that give rise to tissue in adults.
- diplontic: 2 layers, radial animals
- triplontic: 3 layers, bilateral animals (like humans)
8
Q
Ectoderm
A
Covers surface of embryo.
9
Q
Endoderm
A
Innermost layer.
10
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Mesoderm
A
Middle layer in bilateral animals.
11
Q
Coelem
A
Fluid filled cavity in most triploblastic animals, provide room for ogan development, absorb nutrients/gasses, act as hydrostatic skeleton, increase body size.
12
Q
Coelmates
A
Posses true coelem.
13
Q
Pseudocoelomates
A
Coelem not completely lined by mesoderm.
14
Q
Acoelomates
A
Lack fluid filled cavity.
15
Q
Animal early development
A
Protostomes vs deuterostomes, based on cleavage of the zygote.
16
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Protostomes
A
Mesoderm seperates, blastopore becomes mouth.
17
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Deuterostomes
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Mesoderm folds, blastopore becomes anus.
18
Q
Larvae
A
Immature forms that are morphologically different from the adult.
19
Q
Body symmetry
A
Radial or bilateral.
20
Q
5 Animal key points
A
1) all animals share a common ancestor
2) sponges = animal sister taxa
3) true animals have true tissues
4) most animals in Bilateria clade
5) animals are either invertabretes or vertabretes
21
Q
Cambrian explosion
A
Boom of diverse organisms 530 million years ago, time when today’s animals evolved
more plants –> more photosynthesis –> more oxygen –> more animals
22
Q
Bilaterians
A
Bilateral symmetry, complete gut system with mouth and anus.
23
Q
Choanoflagelletes
A
Sister taxa of metazoa, unicellular, heterotrophic, filter feeders, use flagellus to capture food.
24
Q
Porifera
A
Sponges.
Aquiferous system, spicules, no true tissues, filter feeders, non-motile, reproduce sexually or asexually.
Importance: water filtration, sturctures for habitat of other animals, human medicines
25
True tissue
Cells organized to perform a certain function, attached to a fibrous mat.
26
Aquiferous system
Pores that transfer water, food, gas.
27
Spicules
Strong structure made out of calcium carbonate, silica, or spongin.
28
Porifera reproduction
Sexual: male and female cells in one organism
Asexual: budding and fragmentation
29
Ctenophora
Comb jellies.
- diploblastic
- motile
- sister taxa of cnidaria
30
Eumetazoa
All animals except sponges.
True tissues, gastrovascular cavity, nervous system, body symmetry.
31
Cnidaria
Jellies, sea anemones, hydrozoa, coral, etc.
Diploblastic, radial symmetry, nerve net, stinging stuctures, gastrovascular cavity.
32
Nerve net
Noncentralized nervous system, no brain.
33
Gastrovascular cavity
One opening for digestion/excretion, acts as hydrostatic skeleton.
34
Cnidocytes
Cells unique to cnidarians, capture prey, contain cnidae.
35
Cnidae
Organelles that explode outward in cnidarians.
- most common: nematocytes (have toxins)
36
Polymorphism
Cnidarian body forms:
1) Polyp -- sessile (ex. anemones)
2) Medusa -- motile (ex. jellyfish)
37
3 Medusazoa groups
Hydrozoans, scyphozoas, cubaozoans.
38
Hydrozoans
Class of jellyfish.
- polyps as adults
- colonial
- alteration of generations
- mostly marine
39
Scyphozoans
Large jellies.
*"cup animals"*
- four oral lobes
- dioecious
40
Cubozoans
Cube/box jellies.
- cube-shaped bodies
- good hunters
41
Anthozoa
Anemones, corals, sea fans, sea pens.
42
Anemones
- solutary
- tentacles around oral disc that lead to pharynx (throat)
- mutualistic with some crabs and fish
43
Stony corals
- colonial
- calcareous cups
- symbiotic with zooxanthelle
- make up coral reefs -- most diverse/productive communities on Earth!
44
Coral bleaching
Coral expels zooxanthelle --> can not photosynthesize --> starvation --> death.
45
Alteration of generations in hydrozoa
Switches between asexual polyp and sexual medusa.
*sessile polyp reprodues asexually by budding medusa --> medusa resproduce sexually to produce new polyps*
46
Cephalization
Formation of the head region, indicated direction of movement, has special senses that can develop into a brain.
47
Lophotrophozoa
Develop lophophore or go through tochophore larvae stage, or neither.
Types: platyhelminthes, rotifers, ectoprocts, brachiopods, molluscs, annelids.
48
Platyhelminthes
Flat worms.
- increased surface area --> increased water/gas exchange
- triplolastic
- reproduce asexually (regeneration) or sexually (monoecius)
- free living (use cilia to move)
- symbiotic or parasitic
49
Mollusca
Chitons, gastropods, cepholapods, bivalvia.
- soft bodies
- most secrete calcareous shell
- diverse
Main body parts: foot, mantle, visceral mass, radula.
50
Visceral mass
Organs + mantle.
51
Foot
Used for locomotion, varies in shape.
52
Mantle
Doral layer of skin, secretes shell.
53
Radula
Toothed tongue used to scrape food.
54
Chiton
- 8 plates
- adhere strongly to surfaces
55
Gastropods
Snails, slugs.
- coiled shell
- cephalization
56
Cephalopods
Octopus, squid, cuttlefish.
- extensive ganglia
- internal shell or lost shell entirely
- tentacles
- beak like jaws
- ink sac
57
Bivalves
Clams, oysters, etc.
- 2 shells
- filter feeding
58
Annelids
Segmented worms (ie. earth worms, leeches, tube worms)
- metameric segmentation
- setae
2 clades: errantia, sedentaria.
59
Errantia
Type of annelid.
- motile
- marine
- body segments
- parapodia used for locomotion
60
Sedentaria
Type of annelid.
- less/non motile
- burrow into soil
- gills for filter feeding
Ex. Lumbricidae (earth worms):
- monocious
- clitellum for reproduction
- extract soil nutrients
- aerate soil
61
Symbiosis
Relationship between two different organisms.
- Mutualism: + +
- Commensalism: + 0
- Parasitism: + -
- Competition: - -
62
Ecdysozoa
Protostome bilaterian animals that shed a cuticle.
63
Cuticle
Tough exoskeleton, molted as the animals grows.
- Ecdysis: process when an animal grows a new cuticle
64
Clades of ecdysozoa
Nematoda, arthropoda, onycophora, tardigrada
65
Nematoda
Round worms.
- no legs
- exoskeleton made of collagen
- no circulatory system
- nutrients move through hemocoel
- longitudinal muscles
- free-living/mutualistic/parasitic
- live in variety of habitats
66
Arthropoda
Arachnids, crustaceans, insects.
- live in all habitats
- body plan = segmented body + hard exoskeleton + jointed appendages
- chtin in exoskeleton
- compound eyes
- open circulatory system
- respirate using book lungs or pores
67
Arthropoda life cycles
- Complete metamorphosis = 4 stages
- Incomplete metamophosis = 3 stages
- Direct development
68
Arthropoda major lineages
Chelicerates, myriapods, pancrustaceans
69
Chelicerates
Sea spiders, horeshoe crabs, scorpions, ticks, mites, spiders.
- claw-like feeding appendages
- lack antenae
- simple eyes
- 6 pairs of appendages (1 pair = fangs, 1 pair = sensing, 4 pairs = walking)
70
Myriapods
Millipedes and centipedes.
- pair of head antena
- 3 pairs of appendages for mouthparts
- each body segment has one pair of legs
- Millipedes: legs are partially fused, eat plant matter
- Centipedes: carnivorous, have poison
71
Pancrustaceans
Crustaceans and hexapods.
Crustaceans (crabs, lobster, shrimp, barnacles):
- marine/freshwater/terrestrial
- specialized appendages
- 2 pair of antennae
- walking legs on thorax
- have a "tail"
Hexapods (flea, earwig, ant, dragonfly, butterfly):
- wings allow flight
- 6 legs
- 3 body parts = head + thorax + abdomen
- pair of head antennae
- mandible as mouth on head
72
Appendage uses
Sensory, locomotion, defense, offense, feeding.
73
Protostome development
- Cleavage = spiral, determinate
- Coelom formation: solid mass of mesoderm
- Blastopore --> mouth
74
Deuterostome development
- Cleavage = radial, indeterminate
- Coelom formation: folds of archenteron
- Blastopore --> anus
75
Deuterostome characteristics
- bilaterian
- anus develops from blastopore
- dorsal nerve cord
- radial cleavage
- embryonic cells are indeterminate
- coelom is well developed
76
Acorn worms
- deposit/suspension feeders
- mucus coated proboscis traps food
- proboscis extends and retracts into collar
- trunk contains organs
77
Pterobranchia
- colonial
- live in collagen tubes
- suspension feeders (food caught in mucus covered tentacles)
78
Echinodermata
Sea stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers.
*"spiny skin"*
- exclusively marine
- sexual reproduction (males/females release gametes into water)
- pentaradial symmetry
- water vascular system
- calcareous exoskeleton
- have a coelom
- dioecious
79
Pentaradial symmetry
Secondarily derived radial symmetry, no head, 5-fold symmetry around central disk
*Juviniles have bilateral symmetry*
80
Regular echinoids
Have pentaradial symmetry.
ex. sea urchins, sea stars
81
Irregular echinoids
Have radial symmetry
ex. sand dollars
82
Water vascular system
Network of canals with tube, hydrostatic water pressure, madreporite
83
Tube feet
Used for locomotion/feeding/respiration, found in ambulacral grooves
84
Madreporite
Sieve for water input in a water vascular system
85
Calcareous exoskeleton
Test comprising small plates (ossicles).
- bound together with collagen
- covered by epidermis (pincer-like spines used for defense/debris removal)
86
Echinoidea
Sea urchins, sand dollars.
- oral side down
- moveable spines/tube feet
- "gills" around mouth
- complex mouthparts (Aristole's lantern)
- mostly nonvenomous
87
Aristotle's lantern
Mouth part for chewing and breaking down prey
88
Asteroidea
Sea stars.
- oral surface down
- madreporite/anus on aboral surface
- arms extend from central disk
- carnivores
89
Holothuroidea
Sea cucumbers.
- elongated body
- oral side forward/down
- tube feet on the sides of the body
- reduced skeleton
- internal respritory organs
- eat algae/microscopic animals
- defend themselves through evisceration
90
Evisceration
Defense mechanism, eject internal organs from anus at attacker
91
Ophiuroidea
Brittle stars.
- distinct central disk
- long/flexible arms
- found in all oceans
- very mobile
92
Crinoidea
Sea lilies, feather stars.
- feed on plankton
- mostly deep ocean
93
Chordata
Deuterostome bilaterian animals, include lacelets, tunicates, vertabretes.
- ecologically diverse
- marine/freshwater/terrestrial
- free living/parasitic
- herbivores
- predatory suspension feeders
4 KEY SYNAPOMORPHIES
1) notocord
2) dorsal hollow nerve cord
3) phayngeal slits
4) post anal tail
94
Notochord
Flexible rod, provides support.
95
Dorsal hollow nerve cord
Constitutes central nervous system (brain + spinal cord)
96
Pharyngeal slits
Series of arches open to the outside, for feeding/breathing.
97
Post anal tail
Used for locomotion
98
3 Chordate clades
Cephalochordata, urochordata, vertebrata.
99
Cephalochordata
Lancelets.
*"head cord"*
- earliest chordata
- filter feed
- segmented muscles
100
Urochordata
Tunicates.
*"tail cord"*
- filter feed
- metamorphose
- motile as larvae/sessile as adults
101
Hox Genes
Key role in development of body plan, responsible for anterior swelling of lancelet nerve cord.
102
Vertabrata
Includes cyclostomata and gnathostomata.
- 2+ sets of hox genes
- vertebrae
- endoskeleton = bone + cartilage
- neautral crest
- myoglobin
103
Cartilage
Flexible connective tissue with collagen.
104
Bone
Rigid connective tissue, mineralized calcium phosphate
105
Neutral crest
Collection of cells at edge of embryo tube
106
Myoglobin
Protein in muscles that stores oxygen.
107
Cyclostomata
Jawless fish.
*"Round mouth"*
- lack jaws/backbone
Myxini and petromyzontida
108
Myxini
Hagfish.
- scavengers
- notochord
- cartilage skull
- produce slime as defense
- knot themselves
109
Petromyzontida
Lampreys.
*"stone sucker"*
- parasitic
- no bones
- freshwater
- migrate to sea
110
Gnathostomata
Jawed vertabrates.
*"jaw mouth"*
- jaws to grab food
- paired appendages
- 4 hox genes
111
Origin of jaws
Developed from skeletal support of pharyngeal slits.
112
Paired appendages
For locomotion and greater range of movement/control.
ex. pectoral fins and pelvin fins
113
Lateral line system
Detects motion in water, helps with navigation and prey detection.
Only in cartilagnous fish, bony fish, some amphibians
114
2 clades of gnathostomata
1) Chondrichthyes
2) Osteichthyes
115
Chondrichthyes
Ratfish, sharks, skates/rays
*"cartilage fish"*
- cartilaginous skeleton
- some covered in mineralized tiles for strength
- shark skin made up of dermal denticles for swimming faster
- electroreceptors for foraging/navigation
- internal fertilization
116
External fertilization
Energetically efficint, lots of offspring, offsprings unprotected, environmentally contrained.
117
Internal fertilization
Protects offspring, parental care, few obstacles for egg to meet sperm, energetically expensive, fewer offspring.
118
Ovoviviparous reproduction
Eggs retained in female, recieve no nutrients from mother during development
ex. great white shark
119
Viviparous reproduction
Embryos develop within and get nutrients from mother.
ex. bull sharks
120
Oviparous reproduction
Eggs hatch after being laid.
ex. horned sharks
121
Selachimorpha
Sharks.
- upper jaw not fused to skull
- many rows of teeth
- replaceable teeth
122
Osteichthyhes
Bony fish.
- ocerculum
- air sac
2 types: actinopterygii, sarcopterygii
123
Actinopterygii
Eels, herrings, anchovies, seahorses.
*"ray fin"*
Marine/freshwater, oviparous
124
Sarcopterygii
Lungfish, tetrapoda.
*'"fleshy fin"*
- fleshy limbs
- internal bones
- rise of paired limbs in tetrapods (forelimb + hindlimb)
125
Exaptions in vertabretes
Shift in the function of a trait during evolution.
Pharyngeal slits, mineralized tissues, fleshy limbs.
126
Tetrapoda
"Four feet," limbs with fingers and toes adapted for terrestrial movement, 3+ chambered heart.
127
Challenges from water to land & tetrapoda solutions
1) respriration -- lungs, internal notstril, skin
2) support and movement -- strenghten pectoral/pelvic limbs
3) senses -- hearing to detect airborne sounds
4) water retention/waste managment -- concetrate waste products
5) reproduction -- in water for amphibians, metamorphosis
128
Advantages of terrestrial life
1) avoid competition
2) find food
3) access to atmospheric oxygen
4) escape predators
129
Tetrapoda major clades
Amphibia and Amniota
130
Amphibia
1st terrestrial vertabretes, smooth skin with glands for repriration, warning coloration.
131
Frogs
*"no tail"*
- hind legs for juming
- long sticky tongues
- vocal prouches
- buccal bump for respiration/vocalization
- mostly oviparous
- develop from tadpole (aquatic) to frog (terrestrical) through metamorphosis
132
Salamanders
"*conspicuous tail"*
- internal fertilization
- mostly oviparous
- varying shapes/sizes
133
Caecilians
*"no feet"*
- burrowers
- reduced eyes
- live in tropics
- internal fertilization
- viviparous
134
Amniota
- animals with a membrane around fetus
- fully terrestrial
- anmiotic egg to protect fetus
- internal fertilization
- kidneys/large intestine for waste retentinon
- rib cage, sternum, ankle bones
135
Amniotic egg components
- amnion: fluid filled sac
- allantois: waste disposal
- chorion: gas exchange
- yolk sac: food supply
- albumen: protects yolk
- shell: protection
136
3-chambered heart
In some reptiles, all amphibians.
137
4-chambered heart
In some reptiles, all mammals.
138
Double circuit circulation
Pulmonary/de-oxygenated or systematic/oxygenated
139
Temporal fenestration
Windows in the skull.
- Anapsid: no windows (ex. turtles)
- Synapsid: 1 window (ex. mammals)
- Diapsid: 2 windows (ex. lizards, croc, dinos)
140
Temperature regulation
In reptiles and mammals, internal mechanisms to control the body (endothermy)
141
Reptilia
- overlapping scales made of keratin
- internal fertilization
- lay eggs on land
142
Tenstudines
Turtles.
*"shell"*
- 2 part bony shell (carapase + palstron)
- teeth are lost
- herbivorous or carnivorous
- terrestrial or aquatic
- oviparous, no parental care
143
Lepidosauria
"scaly lizard"
Have a kinetic skull.
144
Snakes and lizards
- tongues move air towards olfactory organs
- some are venomous
- modified teeth
- heat sensory
145
Archosauria
"lead lizard"
- 4 chambered heart
- nest building
- parental care
- secondary bony palate.
Include birds and crocs.
146
Birds
- warm blooded
- specialized lungs and air sacs
- feathers, hollow bones
- toothless beaks
- good eyesight
- internal fertilization
- oviparous, parents incubate eggs
147
Bird diversity
Bird modifications --> more efficient flight.
- Flight: hovering vs soaring vs flightless
- Eating: filter feeding vs flesh tearing vs crushing
148
Mammals
Synapsid amniotes.
149
Synapsida
- temporal fenestra
- sprawling stature
- no hair
- lay eggs
150
Early mammalia
~ 167 mya
- small
- nocturnal
- englarged brain and olfactory bulbs for smell
151
Mammalia
~ 6,400 species, diversity of habitat and body size
*"breast"*
- mammary glands
- hair
- lower jaw with 1 bone
- 3 ear bones (2 eveolved from jaw)
- endothermic
-- efficient respritory/cirulatory systmes
- teeth
- high arental hair
- fat layer under skin
- efficient kidneys
152
Mammary glands
Modified sweat glands, produce milk, delivered via nipples or skin glands
Milk rich in fat, sugar, protein, minerals, vitamins
153
Hair
Homologous to feathers, evolved for tactile sensation and insulation
Specialization: vibrissae (whiskers), camoflague, warning
154
Vibrissae
Whiskers.
- sensory hairs
- around face
- larger than most body hairs
155
Endothermic
Regulate body temperature, convergent evolution with birds
156
Mammal respritory/circulatory systems
4 chambered heart, aorta branches, oxygen delivery enhanced, ribcage ventilation with muscular diaphraghm, 2-way air track (inhale/exhale)
157
Mammal teeth
Various shapes based on function, 2+ generations of teeth
158
Fat layer under mammal skin
For insulation and water conservation
159
Efficient kidneys in mammals
Concerve water, remove waste
160
Mammalia clades
Monotremata and theria
161
Monotremata
*"one hole"*
- common anal/urogenital opening
- milk secreted by glands
- lack teeth
- limbs on side
- oviparous but have parental care
- lay amniotic eggs
162
Theria
Marsupials and placentals.
- external ear flaps
- seperate anal/urogentical openings
- males have external gonads
- milk delivered via nipples
- embryo connected to mother via placenta (for nutrient exchange)
163
Theria clades
Marsupialia and eutherians
164
Marsulialia
Opossums, kangaroos, koalas
*"pouched"*
- yold sac placenta
- embryo is hairless and blind
- viviparous
- yound born in early stage of development
165
Eutherians
Elephants, manatees, anteaters, sloths, rodents, primates, carnivors, bats, whales, hoofed animals.
- egg implants into uterine wall
- trophoblast develops placenta
- young born in late stage of development
166
Primates
Humans closest extant relatives (share 98.7% of DNA)
- forward facing eyes for depth perception
- opposoable thumbs for gransping
- large brain
- well developed cerebral cortex
- flattened nails, rather than claws
167
Chirptera
Bats.
- only true flying mammals
168
Form
Anatomy.
Biological form of an organism.
169
Function
Physiology.
Biological functions an organism performs.
170
Cell membranes
Passes through nutrients, gasses, wastes.
- rate of exchange: cell's surface area
- amount of exchange materials: cell's volume
171
Flat animals
All cells in contact with environment --> more surface area
172
Complex organisms
Adaptations to increase surface area, interstital fluid for material exchange in vertabretes.
173
Animal body order
Cell --> tissue --> organ --> organ system
174
Tissue structures
Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
175
Epithelial tissue
Lines surface of body/organs/cavities, cells closely joined, categorized on shape & arrangement
176
Connective tissue
Binds/supports other tissues, contains cells scattered in extracellular matrix.
177
Matrix
Collagen (strength) + reticular fiber (connects) + elastic fibers (stretch and snap)
178
Muscle tissue
Responsible for body movement, has actin and myosin (proteins)
3 types = skeletal, smooth, cardiac
179
Nervous tissues
Recieves/transmits/processes information
2 types = neurons (transmits), glial cells (support neurons)
180
Endocrine system
Transmits hormones (chemical signals) through the body via blood
181
Nervous system
Transmits information between specific locations
182
Homeostasis
Maintenance of internal environment regardless of external environment
- fluctuations above or below a set point
--> detected by sensor to trigger a response --> return to set point
183
Regulator
Internal mechanisms control body -- endothermy
184
Conformer
External factors control body -- ectothermy
185
Homeothermy
Body temperature is constant
*ex. walrus*
186
Poikilothermy
Body temperature fluctuates
*ex. lizard*
187
5 Adaptations for Temperature Regulation
1) insulation
2) circulatory
3) evaporative
4) behavioral
5) metabolic
188
Insulation
Traps warm air close to body/fat
- hair
- feathers
- skin
189
Circulatory
Blood flow near surface, countercurrent exhange transfers heat from opposite flowing fluids
190
Evaporative heat loss
Water evaporates through skin
- sweating
191
Behavioral
Animal positions
- in sun
- in huddles
192
Metabolic
Increase muscle activity and hormone stimutation
- shivering
193
Set points vary
Regulated (puberty) or cyclic (day vs night)
194
Nutrition
Process of quiring/breaking apart food.
- herbivores: eat plants
- carnivores: eat animals
- omnivores: eat plants and animals
195
Diet must satisfy...
Chemical energy for cellular processes
- carbs, proteins, lipids for ATP production
Organic building blocks for macromolecules
- needed to grow, maintain, reproduce, etc.
Essential nutrients
- amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals
196
Cellular respiration
Producing energy through oxidation of molecules (glucose, glycerol, amino acids)
197
Food processing
Ingestions --> diestions --> absorbtion --> elimination
198
Ingestion
Act of eating/feeding.
- suspension feeding: small food particles filtered from water
- substrate/deposit feeding: animals live in/on their food
- fluid feeders: nutrient rich fluid is sucked
- ***bulk feeders: large pieces of food eaten
199
Digestion
Breaking down food.
- intracellular: food vaculoes engulf food by phagocytosis and fuse with lysosomes
- ***extracellular: break down food outside of cells (simple body or complex body)
200
Bird digestion
- no teeth
- crop to store/soften food
- 2 stomachs (chemical and mechanical)
201
Mammal digestion
- Chewing/saliva aids digestion
- glands secrete digestive juices (alivary, pancreas, liver, gall-bladder)
202
Peristalsis
Pushes food along, rhythmic contractions of muscles in the wall of canal.
203
Sphincters
Valve that regulate movement of material.
204
Small intestine
Where most of digestions occurs, very long (>20 ft)
205
Absorbtion
Uptake of nutrients by body cells
- occurs in 2nd half of small intestine
- ends with large intenstine including colon + cecum + rectum
206
Cecum
Absorbs nutrients + water, role in fermentation.
207
Colon
Absorbs water, compacts remaining material (feces)
208
Adaptations for digestion
Dental, stomach, mutualistic.
209
Dental adaptations for digestion
Different shapes, various teeth generations
- heterodonty: specialized teeth for special diets
210
Stomach adaptations for digestion
- Carnivore stomachs = large, expandable
- Herbivore stomachs = long, increase digestions time
- Ruminants = in cows/deer, 4 chambers, several sacs for fermentation, gastric juices released
211
Mutualistic adaptations for digestion
Symbiotic relations between human and bacteria.
- Humans get vitamins for immune system
- Bacteria get nutrients and stable host environment
212
Osmoregulation
Controls solute concentrations, balances water gain/loss.
213
Excretion
Rids body of waste products.
214
Osmosis
Process of water entering/leaving cells.
215
Osmolarity
Solte concentration of a solution, determines movement of water across membrane.
216
Osoosmotic
Equal osmolatiry.
217
Hypoosmotic
Low osmolarity.
218
Hyperosmotic
High osmolarity.
219
Osmoconformers
Isoosmotic with surroundings, do not regulate.
220
Osmoregulators
Expand energy to control water uptake/loss.
221
Adaptations to reduce water use
- nocturnal lifestyles
- moist foods
- water production via cellular respiration
222
Transport epithelia
Specialized cells for moving bolutes in specific directions, arranged in complex tubular networks.
223
Nitrogenous waste
Animals convert toxic ammonia to less toxic compounds prior to excretion.
224
Ammonia
Very toxic, requires lots of water to excrete.
225
Urea
Less toxic than NH3, produced in liver, taken to kidneys.
226
Uric acid
Nontoxic, not dissolveable.
227
Hydrostatic pressure
Drives filtrations for excretion.
228
Kidneys
Used in osmoregulation/excretion, filters blood, generates urine, imporant for homeostasis.
229
Nephron
Fuctinoal unit of kidneys, performs 3 processes:
1) filtration -- occurs as flood pressure forces fluid from blood to glomerulus
2) reabsorption -- water and minerals transported to blood
3) secretion -- H and K ions transported to tubules
230
Urine
Comes from filtrate as it flowers through nephron and collecting duct.
231
Countercurrent multiplier system
Transports salt to regulate osmolarity.
232
Cortical nephron
Most common, short, filters waste.
233
Juxtamendullary nephron
Long, conserves water, regulate ion concentration.
234
Animal reproduction
Sexual or asexual.
235
Sexual reproduction
Creation of an offspring by fusion of male gamete (sperm) and female gamete (eggs) to form zygote.
236
Asexual reproduction
Creation of an offprind without fusion of egg and sperm.
237
Types of asexual reproduction
1) budding -- new individuals arise from outgrowths of exsisting ones
2) fusion: splitting into 2 daughters of equal size
3) fragmentation: breaking of the body into pieces, must be accompanied by regeneration
4) parthenogenesis -- egg develops without fertilization
238
Genetic recombonation
Varied phenotypes, increased reproduction success in face of environmental changes
- sexual repro. --> more genetic recombination
239
Reproductive cycles
Controlled by hormones and environmental cues.
240
Ovulation
Release of mature eggs, during midpoint of female cycle.
241
Hermaphroditism
Monoecious vs dioecious.
- monoecious: individual has M + F organs
- dioecious: individual has M or F organs
242
Simultaneously hermaphroditism
Animals can produce egg and sperm at the same time.
243
Sequential hermaphroditism
Animals that start as one sex and switch to the opposite sex during their lifespan.
244
Fertilization
Union of egg and sperm, internal or external.
245
Internal fertilization
Sperm are deposited in or near the female reproductive tract, fertilization occurs within the tract, requires behaviornal interaction/organ compatability.
246
External fertilization
Eggs shed by female, fertilizaed by sperm in external environment, moist habitat needed.
247
Internal fertilization effects
1) fewer gametes
2) higher zygote survival
3) parental care
4) protection from predators
248
Animal development
Begins at fertilization --> cell divides through cleavage --> many cleavage events --> blastula forms.
249
Polarity
In many eggs/zygotes, distribution of yolk, important for axis information.
- animal pole: less yolk
- vegetal pole: more yolk
250
Gastrulation
Reorganization of blastula into 2 or 3 layered embryo called a gastrula, inward movement of cells through blastopore.
251
Blastula
Divides into embryoblast and trophoblast when in uterus.
252
Trophoblast
Forms outer layer of blastocysts, develops into placenta.
253
Extraembryonic membrane
Forms after 10 days, 4 forms (amnion, chorion, yolk sac, allantous)
254
Organogenesis
Development of organs, interactions of germ layers.
255
Ectoderm after organogenesis
Jaws, skin, sensory system, nervous system, germ cells.
256
Mesoderm after organogenesis
Skeletal system, muscular system, circulatory system.
257
Endoderm after organogenesis
Epothelial lining for digestion/excretion/reproduction.
258
Order of animal development
Fertilizatino --> cleavage --> gastrulation --> organogenesis
259
Central nervous system
Neurons that integrate and process information.
260
Peripheral nervous sytem
Neurons that trandmist information into/out of the CNS.
261
Simple brain
3 general sections:
1) forebrain: process smell, sleep, learning
2) midbrain: routes sensory input
3) hindbrain: controls involuntary & motor activity
262
Complex brains
Composed of cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon, brainstem.
263
Sleep
Controlled by braintem and cerebrum, example of circadiam rhythm.
264
Sensory systems
Being with stimuli, generates motor repsonse.
265
Mechanoreceptors
Pressure sensors, nerves linked to hairs
- senses of hearing, balance, pressure, touch, stretch, motion
266
Chemoreceptors
Monitor the internal environment, transmit information on solute concentration, respond to specific molecules in body fluids.
267
Electromagnetic receptors
Detect energy of light, electricity, magnetism.
268
Thermoreceptors
Detect heat and cold.
269
Pain receptors
Detect stimuli that reflect harmful conditions.
270
Locomotion
Active travel from one location to another.
271
Skeletons
Vital for movement, support, protection
*3 types:
- hydrostatic, exoskeleton, endoskeleton*
272
Animal movment
Contraction of muscles, flexion or extension.
273
Muscle tissue
Reponsible for body movement, consists of actin and myosin.
- skeletal: voluntary motion, attatched to bone by tendon
- smooth: involuntary motion
- cardiac: contraction of heart
274
Locomotion in water
Must overcome drag, streamlined bodies for swimming efficiency.
275
Locomotion on land
Running, active flight, gliding, digging, hopping, arm swinging, climbing
- legs/arms/wings modified for efficiency
276
Behavior
Sum of an organism's response to external/internal stimuli, actions carried out by muscles under control of nervous system.
- essential for energy consumption, reproduction, homeostasis
- influences survivability
- subjected to natural selection
277
Innate behavior
Does not require experience.
278
Learned behavior
Requires experience.
279
Proximate causation
How a behavior occurs.
- stimulus and physiological response
- combination of nature (genes) and nuture (environment)
280
Fixed action pattern
Unlearned response to external stimuli.
- sign stimuli: external trigger
- environmental stimuli: circadian rhythms, migration
- animal communication: visual, chemical, tactile, auditory
281
Ultimate causation
Why a behavior occurs.
- influence of survival/reproduction
- evolutionary history
282
Learning
Modification of behavior based on specific experiences.
283
Imprint learning
Establishment of long-lasting behaviornal response, only diring sensative period.
284
Spatial learning
Memory based on environmental space.
285
Associate learning
Memory based on associations between experiences.
*behavior --> survivability --> evolution*
286
Cognition
Process of knowing.
- includes awareness, reasoning, recollection, judgement, problem-solving
287
Social learning
Observed behaviors of other individuals.
288
Survival and reproduction
Differing stretegies affect success.
- optimal foraging strategy: max. benefits at lowest cost
289
Reproductive success
Determined by mating bahavior and choice of mate.
290
Mating systems
Variations in mating behavior.
291
Courtship
Exchange in animal signals to asses potential mates, avoid inbreeding, ensure same species mating.
292
Monogomy
One mate.
293
Polygamy
Many mates.
294
Sexual dimorphism
Male and female differ in appearance that varies with type of mating.
295
Living in groups -- PROS
1) finding food
2) protection from environment
3) protection for predators
296
Living in groups -- CONS
1) competition among group members
2) easy to spot by predators
3) disease spread quick
297
Kin selection
Natural selection that favors traits that increase reproductive success of organim's relatives even if it harms organism's own survival.
298
Eusociality
Cooperative group, one female is reproductivley inactive and takes care of young.
299
Reciprocal altruism
Resource sharing.
300
Conservation biology
Discipline that integrates ecology, physiology, molecular biology, genetics, and evolutionary biology to conserve the diversity of life on Earth.
301
Biodiversity
Variety of life of Earth.
- genetic diversity
- species diversity
- ecosystem diversity
302
Species richness
Number of species.
303
Species evenness
How evenly spread the number of individuals per species.
304
Endangered species
Species at a high risk of extinction.
305
Vulnerable/threatened species
Species that is likely to become exinct in the more distant future.
306
What makes a species vulnerable?
- lower reproductive rates
- limited geographic range
- specialized diet/habitat needs
- small population size
307
Conservation biologists
Study the preservation of biodiversity.
Address the following:
- what is causing current extinctions?
- can anythng be done to stop the current extinction crisis?
308
Ecosystem diversity
Includes different types of habitat, species within the habitat, interactions between those species.
309
Impacts to biodiversity
- habitat loss/destruciton
- invasive species
- pollution
- gloabl climate change
- overexploitation
310
Habitat loss
From agriculture, urban development, forestry, mining, pollution, climate change
- destruction and fragmentation
311
Deforestation
Removal of trees, removes habitats for many species, decreases CO2 absorbtion, decreased O2 release
312
Urbanization
Expansion of cities, emilinates many habitats, affects nearby habitats.
- loss of grasslands/forests
- expansion of deserts
- leads to habitat fragmentation
- introduces pollution
313
Predatory invaders
Invasive species into habitats with no/few natural predators.
314
Competitve invaders
Invasive species compete with natuve species for resources.
315
Pollution
Any chemical in the environment that harms living organisms
- ex. plastic, sewage, pesticides, fossil fuels
316
Greenhouse effect
Heat trapped in atmosphere because greenhous gases abosrb/re-direct infared ratiation that would have otherwise left the atmosphere.
317
Global climate change
Describes past and furutre changes in Earth's weather patterns.
- melts polar ice sheets
- sea level rises
- rising atmospheric temperature
- increasing ocean acidity
- more extreme storms
- changes in breeding timing
- decreased food availability
318
Overexploitation
Harvesting a species faster than it can reproduce.
319
Climate change effect on reproduction cycles
Seasonal temperatures cue reproduction --> climate change decreases reproductive success.
320
Conservation
Protecting animals, assisting animals, protecting/restoring habitats.
321
Endangered species act
Signed in 1973, to protect and recover imperiled species and habitats in whic hthey are found.
322
Protecting and restoring habitats
- state and federal protections
- remove debris, human structure
- limit/prohibit hunting and fishing
- restore native vegitation
323
Biodiversity hotspot
Relatively small area with a great concentration of endemic species and many andangered and threatened species.
324
Wildlife corriors
Help connect fragmented habitats.
