Bio 2 - Unit 1 Flashcards
1
Q
What is the force of evolution that is the source of all new alleles in a given population?
A
Mutation
2
Q
What is the force of evolution that is the main force behind adaptation?
A
Natural Selection
3
Q
What is the force of evolution that can both lower and increase gene diversity?
A
Gene Flow
4
Q
What is the force of evolution that randomly decreases the gene pool (usually via natural disasters)?
A
Genetic Drift
5
Q
What is the force of evolution that facilitates secondary sexual characteristics and nonrandom mating?
A
Sexual Selection
6
Q
What is convergent evolution?
A
Convergent evolution is the selection of adaptations in an environment. Natural selection favors certain adaptions, so those adaptions will appear in multiple species that may not be related.
7
Q
What is an ancestral similarity?
A
It is a similarity between species that is from the most recent common ancestor of that group/clade. Present in the common ancestor itself.
8
Q
What is a derived similarity?
A
A similarity between species that is exclusive to a select few of a group/clade. Common ancestor may or may not have this characteristic.
9
Q
What is polarization?
A
The decision whether some character states are ancestral or derived.
10
Q
What is an outgroup?
A
An outgroup is a species closely related to the group in study (but not a part of that group).
11
Q
What is outgroup comparison?
A
If the outgroup chosen has similar characters to the group in study, then the character is ancestral and vice versa.
12
Q
What is a clade?
A
A group with a common ancestor and ALL of its descendants.
13
Q
What other term can be used to describe a clade..?
A
A monophyletic group.
14
Q
What is homoplasy?
A
A derived characteristic resulting from convergent evolution or evolutionary reversal. Not present in the common ancestor.
15
Q
What is the acronym for all 8 taxa?
A
Did King Phillip Come Out For Good Socks?
16
Q
What are all 8 taxa?
A
Domain
Kingdom
Phyla
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
17
Q
How does the PSC/LSC constitute a species?
A
Species are groups of populations evolutionary independent from other groups. Lineages are species.
18
Q
What are the 3 types of phyletic groups?
A
Monophyletic
Paraphyletic
Polyphyletic
19
Q
What is homology?
A
Passing of a structure from a common ancestor to its descendants.
20
Q
Homology vs. Homoplasy
A
Homology results in homologous structures in a descendant of an ancestor.
Homoplasy results in analogous structures in different species (likely from convergent evolution).
21
Q
What is a monophyletic group?
A
A group of a common ancestor and all descendants. AKA clade.
22
Q
What is a paraphyletic group?
A
A group of a common ancestor, and some descendants.
23
Q
What is a polyphyletic group?
A
Does not include a common ancestor. Some species are grouped together based on traits. Species may be far apart on the phylogenetic tree.
24
Q
What is the basic structure of viruses?
A
A DNA/RNA genome encased in a protein capsid.
25
What are naked viruses?
Viruses without an outer lipid envelope.
26
2 basic shapes of viruses:
Helical - rod like
Icosahedral - geometrical, roundish, like the dice.
27
What are the two reproductive cycles of viruses?
Lytic and Lysogenic
28
Processes of Lytic Cycle
Attachment, Entry, Replication, Assembly, Release
29
Process of Lysogenic Cycle
Virus enters, inserts its genome, cell replicates genome and infection starts.
30
Prophage is:
Inserted genome from virus during Lysogenic cycle.
31
Lysogens are:
Infected cells during Lysogenic Cycle.
32
What is a temperate phage?
A phage that can enter both reproductive cycles.
33
What are viroids?
Naked strands of RNA. Tends to infect plants.
34
What are prions?
Infectious strains of proteins.
35
What types of viruses (genetic) infect animals, plants, and bacteria?
Animals are infected with both RNA and DNA strands of viruses.
Plants are infected with RNA based viruses.
Bacteria are infected with DNA based viruses AKA bacteriophages.
36
Bacteriophage
A virus that exclusively infects bacteria with a head-tail morphology.
37
What is sexual dimorphism?
The differences in males and females of a species.
38
What is the relation of size in prokaryotes compared to eukaryotes?
Prokaryotes are much smaller.
39
True or False: prokaryotes have membrane bound organelles.
False
40
Which prokaryotes (Archaea/Bacteria) have ether linkages in their PM?
Archaea
41
Which prokaryotes (Archaea/Bacteria) have ester linkages in their PM?
Bacteria
42
What are the purpose of cell walls in bacteria?
To prevent bursting of the cell.
43
Archaea lack _____ in their cell walls. They instead have _____ in their cell walls.
Peptidoglycan; Pseudomurein
44
What is an S-layer? Which domain is it universal in and why?
An extra protein layer outside of the membranes. Universal in Archaea to help them survive extreme environments.
45
What are capsules? What are slime layers?
Capsules are gelatinous layers surrounding other cell wall layers. Slime layers are capsules that are harder to detect.
46
What are endospores?
Almost like a state of being where bacteria enter when environment is too harsh. They are nearly indestructible.
47
3 types of horizontal gene transfers.
Conjugation (cell contact)
Transduction (virus injection)
Transformation (plasmids from environment)
48
What are the 3 main shapes of bacteria?
Bacili, Cocci, Spirilis
49
What is the extra shape of bacteria not of the main 3?
Virbrios - comma shaped or beans
50
What is horizontal gene transfer?
The spreading of genetic material across multiple species or cells of prokaryotes.
51
What do bacteria do during nitrogen fixation?
They convert atmospheric N2 to NH3. Ammonia is an easier form of nitrogen to use for many organisms. N2 has a tough triple covalent bond to break.
52
What is phagocytosis?
The engulfment of pathogens by phagocytes (good) leading to pathogens' death.
53
What is the human microbiome?
The collective population of bacteria in a human.
54
Bioremediation is:
The usage of prokaryotes to lessen pollution.
55
Assortative Mating is:
Positive assortative mating is:
Negative assortative mating is:
Assortative mating is the nonrandom mating based on phenotypes.
Positive AM is choosing mates based on similar phenotypes (relative to chooser).
Negative AM is choosing mates based on different phenotypes (relative to chooser).
56
Intrasexual selection is:
The competition between, usually, males. Males will fight to assert dominance.
57
Intersexual selection is:
The 'choosiness' of females towards male mates.
58
What leads to intersexual selection?
The parental investment of females is greater than males.
59
What is stabilizing, directional, and diversifying/disruptive selection?
Stabilizing - the selection for intermediate phenotypes.
Directional - the selection for one phenotype or the other.
Diversifying - the selection for two extreme ends of a phenotype.
60
What is negative frequency dependent selection?
The selection FOR individuals with outlier phenotypes. These individuals will be ignored by predators looking for the common phenotype.
61
What is positive frequency dependent selection?
The selection AGAINST individuals with outlier phenotypes. These individuals will be picked off because they stand out.
62
Negative frequency dependent selection leads to...
More genetic variation.
63
Positive frequency dependent selection leads to...
Less genetic variation.
64
Biological Species Concept states a species is a species because...
Populations that interbreed and produce viable offspring and species.
65
Prezygotic and postzygotic barriers are things that influence the BSC because...
They prevent the inbreeding of certain populations which leads to the classification of different species.
66
Allopatric Speciation is...
The differentiation of populations due to geographic isolation.
67
Sympatric Speciation is...
The differentiation of individuals in a population in the same area. Same place speciation due to allopolyploidy or autopolyploidy.
68
Fusion of species is a result of what?
The result of gene flow countering speciation. Fusion of species is due to incomplete reproductive isolation barriers.
69
What are reservoir species?
The natural hosts of a virus that do not contract symptoms of said virus.
70
What are viral vectors?
Spreaders of a virus (usually bugs).
71
What are the enzootic cycles and epizootic cycles of disease?
Enzootic - the regularly active disease which affects organisms in a place or season.
Epizootic - the temporarily prevalent and widespread disease.
72
Pili in bacteria are similar to ___ in protists.
Cilia
73
What is bacterial mucilage?
Sticky secretion of bacterial cells. Used for biofilms to adhere colonies.
74
What are some defining traits of Gram Positive Bacteria?
Stained purple, high amounts of peptidoglycan in cell walls, vulnerable to penicillin.
75
What are some defining traits of Gram Negative Bacteria?
Stained pink, low amounts of peptidoglycan in cell walls, resistant to penicillin, presence of lipopolysaccharides in cell walls.
76
Cyanobacteria are:
Photosynthetic bacteria that are diverse in their multicellular structure.
77
Proteobacteria are:
Heterotrophic Bacteria.
78
What are saprotrophs?
Organisms that secrete enzymes into the environment to digest food. Typically decomposers.
79
Which two processes do antibiotics stop to kill bacteria?
Stop protein synthesis -> death.
Stop cell wall formation -> death.
80
Which unique lipids make up Archaean cell walls?
Lipopolysaccharides.
81
What are the 3 types of Archaea?
Methanogens - absorb inorganic molecules. Produce methane.
Thermoacidophiles - archaeans that live in extremely hot, acidic environments.
Halophiles - arachaeans that live in high salt concentrations.
82
Pathogens produce _____?
Toxins
83
What are toxins?
Organic molecules released on death of a bacteria/prokaryote that is harmful to a host.
84
Chemoautotrophic bacteria...
Reduce Co2 without sunlight for food.
85
Chemoheterotrophic bacteria...
Absorb organic molecules for food. Similar to animals.
86
Archaea is similar to which domain?
Eukarya (via methionine and TATA box)
87
Viruses cannot reproduce without a...
Host.
88
What two taxa are used for binomial nomenclature (scientific naming)?
Genus, species.
89
Reinforcement is the result of...
Selection against intermediates and hybrids. Results in diversifying selection. Leads to stronger reproductive isolation barriers.
90
Stabilizing selection leads to...
More hybrids as hybrids can survive. Leads to stabilization in populations.
91
The endosymbiosis theory suggests...
(mention 4 organelles and where they came from)...
Mitochondria came from the engulfment of aerobic bacteria and chloroplasts came from the engulfment of cyanobacteria. Nuclear membranes and endoplasmic reticulum originated from the infoldings of the plasma membrane of eukarya.
92
List 6 supergroups of protists.
Excavata
Chromalveolata
Archaeplastida
Rhizaria
Opisthokonta
Amoebozoa
93
Which groups have flagellates?
Excavata
Opisthokonta
Some Archaeplastidians
Chromalveolata
94
Which 3 organelles do protists use for locomotion?
Flagella, Cillia, Pseudopods
95
Alveolates, Stramenopila, and Rhizaria make up the ___ classification.
SAR
96
Holomycota are:
Opisthokonta that are similar to fungi.
97
Holozoa are:
Opisthokonta that are similar to animals.
98
Plankton is a classification of protists by...
Whether or not protists can swim or float in water.
99
Animal - like plankton are:
Protozoan Plankton
100
Plant - like plankton are:
Phytoplankton
101
Periphyton is a classification of protists by...
Whether or not protists are attached to underwater surfaces with mucilage.
102
Amoebae protists move around by using what?
Pseudopods
103
Do all protists have a common ancestor?
No.
104
True or False:
Protists are a paraphyletic group.
Why?
True
Protists are a paraphyletic group because some protists are related to plants/animals.
105
Protists are from the domain:
Eukarya
106
What are endosymbiotic bacteria?
Bacteria that live inside hosts and provide benefits
107
Why is fungal mitosis (along with some protists) different from plants or animals?
Nuclear membrane does not dissolve. 'Closed Mitosis'
108
All protists other than amoebas have the what?
ECM - extracellular matrix.
109
Are protists autotrophic or heterotrophic or both?
Both
Additionally, both autotrophic and heterotrophic tendencies are classified as a mixotroph.
110
What is budding as an asexual form of reproduction?
Parent splits itself, daughter piece grows into a parent sized organism.
111
What is schizogony as an asexual form of reproduction?
Parent performs many nuclear divisions, then cytokinesis = many daughters.
112
What are the two monophyletic clades of the Supergroup Excavata?
Diplomonads + Parabasalids
Euglenozoa
113
Diplomonads and Parabasalids are unique for their:
(1 characteristic - locomotion)
Multiple flagella
114
Euglenozoa are unique for their:
(2 characteristics - flagella and locomotion)
Unique flagella and shape changes during swims
115
Parabasalids are unique for their:
(1 characteristic - locomotion)
Undulating membranes
116
Diatoms (unicellular, photosynthetic shelled protists) and oomycetes (parasitic/saprophytic protists) and brown algae are part of which of the 6 protist supergroups?
Chromalveolata - stramenopila specifically.
117
Dinoflagellates (which cause red tides), Ampicomplexans (Plasmodium transmits malaria), and Ciliates (which move around using cilia) are part of which protist supergroup?
Chromalveolata - alveolates specifically.
118
Ciliates have rows and spirals of what connected to their plasma membrane?
Rows and spirals of cilia.
119
All ciliates have 2 nuclei that are called what?
The micronucleus and macronucleus.
120
What are ampicomplexans named for?
Their apical complexes that help invade hosts.
121
Which alveolate spins with 2 flagella?
Dinoflagellates
122
Which alveolate is a parasite?
Ampicomplexans
123
Plasmodium belongs to which SAR group?
Alveolates
124
Which 3 groups comprise the Rhizaria supergroup?
Radiolarans, Forams, Cercozoans
125
Chlorophytes and Charophytes are part of which protist supergroup?
Archaeplastida
126
Charophytes are the ancestor of what?
All land plants
127
Rhodophyta is part of the Archaeplastida supergroup and is what? (___ algae)
Red algae
128
Choanoflagellates are part of which protist supergroup?
Opisthokonta
129
Choanoflagellates are the common ancestor of which two groups of organisms?
Sponges and all animals
130
Which supergroup do fungi belong to?
Opisthokonta
131
What are 3 characteristics animals and fungi have in common?
1) Heterotrophism
2) Absorptive nutrition
3) Excess food stored as glycogen
132
What molecule is uniquely present in fungal cell walls?
Chitin
133
Chitin causes fungal cells to have 2 additional properties:
1) Increased rigidity (and as a result, inability to engulf food)
2) Decreased movement
134
What is a mycelium?
A mass network of hyphae.
135
What are hyphae?
Tube like filaments of a fungi body
136
What are mushrooms?
The fruiting bodies of a mycelium.
137
What is the difference between septate fungi and aseptate fungi?
Septate fungi have cell walls separating individual cells in the hyphae strands, while aseptate fungi does not.
138
As a result of the lack of cell walls dividing the cells of aseptate hyphae, it is said to be coenocytic. What does this mean?
It means the hyphae is an open cavity and multinucleate.
139
Fungi growing through a liquid medium are what shape?
Spherical
140
Fungi growing on an agar medium is what shape?
Flat and circular
141
True or False: Fungi can only reproduce by asexual reproduction.
False. They do both
142
Know the names of the 7 phyla of Fungi.
Chtridiomycota
Cryptomycota
Microsporidia
Zygomycota
Glomeromycota
Ascomycota
Basidiomycota
143
Glomeromycota is also known as AM fungi. Why is this?
Its ability to form arbuscular mycorrhizae.
144
Cryptomycota fungi is known for its lack of ____ in its cell walls.
Chitin
145
Microsporidia are:
Unicellular parasites.
146
Aseptate or septate:
Zygomycota
Aseptate
147
Aseptate or septate:
Glomeromycota
Aseptate
148
Aseptate or septate:
Ascomycota
Septate
149
Aseptate or septate:
Basidiomycota
Septate
150
Yeast and truffles are examples of which of the 7 fungal phyla?
Ascomycetes
151
This fungal phyla is named for its unique reproductive structures: ascus, ascospores.
Ascomycota
152
Basidiomycota is mainly known for its ability to produce what? (It's edible)
Wide variety of mushroom fruiting bodies (called basidiocarps)
153
Fungi and bacteria are important ____ in ecosystems.
Decomposers
154
Ringworm is a...
Fungal infection
155
Dimorphic fungi can transform from what to what?
Hyphae to yeast
156
How do dimorphic fungi transform?
Entering a host body and exposure to body temperature.
157
What are the 3 symbiotic associations of fungi?
1) Mycorrhizae
2) Lichens
3) Endophytes
158
What is mycorrhizae an association of?
Plant roots and fungi
159
What are endophytes an association of?
Plant leaves or stems and fungi
160
What are lichens an association of?
Photosynthetic organisms and fungi
161
Endomycorrhizae is another name for... (Hint: Glomerocytes)
Arbuscular mycorrhizae
162
How does arbuscular mycorrhizae work?
Fungi penetrates cell walls and grows under cell walls and on top of plasma membrane.
163
How does ectomycorrhizae work?
Fungi does not penetrate cell walls and instead grows around root cells.
164
What benefit do endophytes give to plants?
Endophytes give plants toxins or pathogen protection to increase plant survival.
165
What is the trend among fungal associations? (what is the popular relationship)
Fungi gives minerals and water and receives food in return.
166
What are the 3 types of lichens? Describe.
1) Crustose - crusty films of lichen
2) Foliose - leaf like pieces of lichen. Flowy
3) Fruticose - branch, shrub like.
167
Lichens cannot grow which way?
Vertically (except fruticose, slightly)
168
Chytridiomycota is exclusively _____ (multicellular/unicellular). (Hint: it's an ancient phyla).
Unicellular
169
Unicellular forms of fungi are known as...
Multicellular...
Yeasts; myceliums
170
True or False:
Fungi are saprotrophs.
True
171
Why do fungi have such rapid growth?
High surface area to volume ratio.
172
Why is fungal mitosis considered closed?
Nuclear membrane does not dissolve.
173
Monokaryotic hyphae is defined as:
Hyphae cells with one nucleus
174
Dikaryotic hyphae is defined as:
Hyphae cells with 2 nuclei
175
Heterokaryotic hyphae is defined as:
Hyphae cells with multiple nuclei from 2 genetically distinct organisms.
176
Hyphae cells have (diploid/haploid) cells separated or unseparated by septa.
Haploid
177
Fungi can decompose any _____ containing compound.
Carbon
178
What 2 compounds of plants can fungi exclusively decompose?
Cellulose and lignin
179
Obligate symbiosis is:
Relationships that are mandatory for the fungi's survival.
180
Faculative symbiosis is:
Relationships that are optional for the fungi's survival. Removal of relationship reduces growth rate.
181
Which fungal phyla is the primary partner of lichens?
Ascomycota
182
What is a thallus?
Main body of lichens
183
Why are lichens usually the first colonizers of new land?
Autotropic properties of the photosynthetic partner combined with the durability of fungi = ability to grow almost anywhere with food.
184
How does mycorrhizae affect the soil?
Increases stability and reduces soil erosion.
185
A nonphotosynthetic plant in a 3 partner mycorrhizae is what?
Epiparasite
186
What are mycotoxins?
Toxins inside fungal fruiting bodies.
187
Basidiomycota and Ascomycota comprise a group:
Why?
Dikarya
Presence of a dikaryon stage in both phyla. Basidiomycota have a long dikaryon stage; Ascomycota have a short dikaryon stage.
188
Two compatible mating types of fungi come in contact and fuse. What process just happened?
Plasmogamy
189
Primary and secondary mycelium are characterized by...
Monokaryotic hyphae (primary)
Dikaryotic hyphae (secondary)
190
Basidiomycete dikaryotic hyphae grow into what?
Basidiocarps
191
Karyogamy is...
The fusion of 2 nuclei.
192
Glomeromycota are (obligate/faculative)
Obligate
193
Members of Chytridiomycota have a common organelle for locomotion.
Flagella
194
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