Bio Flashcards
(208 cards)
1
Q
Differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
A
- Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles (such as the nucleus and mitochondria)
- Prokaryotic cells do not
2
Q
Virus
A
-
Unique-lack ribosomes
*Very dependent” → Needs host, no ribosomes, no metabolism
3
Q
G protein coupled receptors
A
- Adenylyl cyclase-enzyme that synthesizes cAMP
- Receive signals from the environment, such as light, nutrients, and other cells, and translate them into actions within the cell.
- Alpha unit binds to GTP
4
Q
Bacteria
A
“Basic life form” → Has metabolism, ribosomes, reproduces alone
5
Q
Conjugation
A
- Transfer in between bacteria
via pinus
6
Q
mRNA levels of genes in an operon
A
Transcription factors:
-binds to promoter
-control when and how genes are turned on or off
7
Q
Operon
A
3 main parts: promoter, operator, and genes controlled by operon
8
Q
Operator
A
Repressors bind to operators
9
Q
Transformation in bacteria
A
-Uptake of DNA across the membrane from the environment
10
Q
Transduction in bacteria
A
- Bacteria phage-like transferring through a duct
- Lytic Cycle-it hijacks its host cell and uses the cell’s resources to make lots of new phages, causing the cell to lyse (burst) and die in the process.
- Lysogenic cycle-The lysogenic cycle allows a phage to reproduce without killing its host; phage DNA recombined with the host genome
11
Q
SNOW DROP
A
12
Q
transpons
A
13
Q
Single strand in bacteria phage
A
Use RNA as genetic material
14
Q
Commensalism
A
- a relationship that’s beneficial to one but doesn’t affect another
15
Q
Prokaryotes and eukaryotes chromosomes
A
- Eukaryotes have telomers and histones
- Telomeres: protect and reserve DNA from degradation
- Histones: bind to DNA, help give chromosomes their shape, and help control the activity of genes (restricted to archaean cells and eukaryotic cells)
16
Q
Histone function
A
- act like spools for DNA — they help organize, package, and regulate DNA inside the nucleus.
17
Q
“A” for Acetylation = A for Activation
A
- Loosens DNA from histones → DNA is more accessible → Increases gene expression.
18
Q
“M” for Methylation = M for Mute
A
- Often tightens DNA/histone structure → DNA is less accessible → Decreases gene expression.
19
Q
archaea vs bacteria
A
-both are single celled prokaryotes
-archaea lack peptidoglycan found in most bacteria; often found in extreme environments
20
Q
Rough ER vs Smooth ER
A
-the rough ER has ribosomes attached to its surface, giving it a “rough” appearance–mainly for protein synthesis
-the smooth ER lacks ribosomes, mainly for** lipid synthesis** and detoxification process
21
Q
Protein Professing
A
- Golgi-function as factories
–>Secretory vesicles-like a posting office
22
Q
Overview of Mitosis
A
- Microtubules–>produce mitotic spindle
-
Microtubules Move Things!
(Mitosis, Motion, and Material transport)
23
Q
Prokaryotic cells
A
- transcription and translation occur simultaneously
24
Q
Overview of cellular respiration
A
25
Cellular respiration in prokaryotes
26
Cellular respiration in eukaryotes
27
Retrovirus Infection
* Use reverse **transcriptase** to convert **RNA into complementary DNA (cDNA**)-->cDNA integrated into host genome.
28
Functions of cholesterol on membrane fluidity
29
Cytoskeletal Filaments
30
Osteoblasts
31
Chondrocytes
* **cartilage caretakers**
* When they stop dividing, bone growth is complete.
32
Bone remodeling
33
Skeletal Endocrine Control
* *Osteoclast*-bone crash--> dissolve old and damaged bone-->Ca+ into the blood stream
* *Osteoblast*-the opposite: cells that create new bone and help existing bones grow and heal
34
Smooth muscles
involuntary muscles that line the walls of hollow organs and blood vessels
35
Muscle Fibers and sarcomeres
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-ap1/chapter/muscle-fiber-contraction-and-relaxation/
36
Actin and Myosin
* Ca2+ binds to troponin-->moves tropomyosin out of the way
37
"A Pretty Red Rose"
38
Contractile Apparatus
39
Stop codon
UAA
UGA
UAG
* U Are Annoying, U Go Away, and U Are Gone
40
Nervous system
41
Parietal Lobe
* "S.P.A.C.E."
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Occipital lobe
Visual processing
43
Temporal lobe
**Auditory processing, memory (Hippocampus).
Wernicke's area: Language comprehension.
44
cerebellum
coordination of balance and movement
45
thalamus
* Relay center for sensory information (except smell).
46
**Limbic system**
* Hippocampus: store memory
* Amygdala: control fear-alarm system
* Thalamus: messages from the brain make a pit stop at before heading to the spinal cord
* Hypothalamus: brain's **thermostat**
47
**limbic system-functions**
* to process and regulate emotion and memory while also dealing with sexual stimulation and learning
48
Peristalsis
* a series of **involuntary muscle contractions** that move food, urine, and bile through the body
49
Nucelotides vs nucelosides
1. Examples of **nucleosides** include cytidine, uridine, adenosine, guanosine, thymidine, and inosine.
2. Nucleotides are the basic building blocks of nucleic acids, such as RNA and DNA. The sugar molecule in a nucleotide is either ribose in RNA or deoxyribose in DNA.
50
Plasma Components
51
**Vasoconstriction**
Vasoconstriction = ↓vessel radius = **↑resistance(↑BP) and ↓blood flow**
52
Blood flow order
Blood flows in from **systemic circulation** --> **right atrium**--> **tricuspid valve** -->**right ventricle** (blood needs to get oxygenated)--> **pulmonary valve**--> **pulmonary artery** (Blood will get oxygenated and head back)--> **pulmonary vein into the left atrium**--> **bicuspid/mitral valve** -->**the left ventricle.**
The **left ventricle is stronger** since this is what pushes blood into systemic circulation. The blood will pass through the **aortic valve** into the aorta.
At this point, it will travel through arteries into **arterioles (which have the highest drop in blood pressure to ensure the capillaries dont blow up)** and into the capillaries. At the capillaries, oxygen is given to the tissues and the blood will flow out of the capillaries through venules and converge back into veins.
53
Valves in Order of Blood Flow
**"Try Pulling My Arm"**
Tricuspid
Pulmonary
Mitral
Aortic
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Reduced blood flow through RT AV valve
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Nephron
Main structures: **Bowman's Capsule (Filtration)-->Proximal Tubule (Reaboprtion)-->loop of henle (concentration of urine)--> Distal CT (Fine tuning reabsorption and secretion)-->collecting duct (Final Concentration)**
56
Loop of henle functions
* **Down for water, up for salt,
decide carefully, collect and concentrate**
57
**Sodium-Potassium pump**
* an enzyme that **moves sodium and potassium ions across** the cell membrane of animal cells
-**Active transport** by allowing the ions to flow **AGAINST** their concentration gradients.
- **Establish and maintain** the **resting membrane potentia**l and is separate from the AP.
-The Na+/K+ATPase pumps Na & K AGAINST their concentration gradients (**3 Na out, 2 K in**), which helps maintain **the concentration gradients, since Na naturally flows in & K naturally flows out.**
58
**Sodium-Potassium pump function**
* Creates **gradient in nerve cells**
* Used in **kidney-maintain ion balance in the body**
* Helps maintain **BP and cardiac contractions**
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Action potential
* **The massive influx of Na+ through voltage gated ion channels**-->depolarization of neurons that occur through the action potential
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leukocytes
-Aka **White Blood cells**
-help body fight against infection and disease
61
Inflammation
-blood vessels will **dilate to increase the flow of blood and immune cells to the injury site**
62
Glycogensis
* **High glucose-->glycogen**, stored in the **liver and muscles** through glycogenesis
* **Insulin** stimulates **glycogen synthesis**
* **Glucokinase** - **phosphorylates glucose -> G6P**. Important step in glycolysis
63
important enzyme
* Glycogen synthase = star enzyme (controls how much glycogen is built)
* **Glycogen = Go-to storage (quick use)**
64
Gastric Lipase
* an enzyme that **breaks down dietary fat** in the stomach
65
**Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase**
* **Rate-limiting enzyme** in **fatty acid synthesis**
* **A Fat Cow Makes Fatty Acids**
* **Fat = Final storage (long-term backup)**
66
**Glucagon=Glucose is gone**
* **Glucagon = Fasting** -->
* We're low on sugar, let's release some!
67
**Enzyme's induced fit model**
* An enzyme's active site can change its shape slightly to accomodate a small variety of structures.
68
Breathing
* Diaphragm contracts-->negative pressure
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Mitosis Cycle
* "Grow, Copy, Check"
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**micronuclei vs macronuclei**
* **Macronuclei**: responsible for metabolic and developmental functions, protein synthesis, somatic functions-**somatic functions**
* **Micronuclei**: serve as a marker for potential genomic instability, typically for **reproduction and genetic information**
71
**Purines and Pyrimindines**
* **Purines-Pure as gold, has two rings**-**AG**
* **Guanine has 3 H donors **
* **Thymine has the CH3 penis thing sticking out**
*** A for Amine only (just NH₂, no oxygen)**
72
**Central Nervous System & Peripheral NS**
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**Oligodendrocytes-CNS**
* like **an octopus **whose arms reach out to grab and myelinate multiple axons.
74
**Schwann cells-PNS
A swan swims in a pond, and pond = PNS**
* Support and protect nerve cells in the **peripheral nervous system (PNS)**.
* Wraps around **one axon-form myelin sheath**
* Myelin sheath decreases capacitance
75
**symphathetic system-->constricts pupils**
* pupil dilation
* halt on GI peristalsis
* increased blood to the skeletal muscles
* increased heart rate, **inhibition of digestive enzymes including saliva.**
76
**CELL Junctions**
* Desmosomes - provide **strength by anchoring** the cytoskeletons, specifically the intermediate filaments. important if there's **mechanical stress**. ex. *skin, muscles*
* Gap junctions (like little windows) - **communication**. protein channels called connexons. only ions and small stuff may passively go through. important for synchrony, like coordinated activity. *Heart (Cardiac) and Smooth Muscle*
* Tight junctions -(like a zipper) **prevent paracellular pathways**. prevent water and other solutes from going in between cells. skin, GI tract
77
**cell membrane potential**
* resting: -70mV
* threshold: -55mV
* Peak action potential: +40mV
78
**Electrical vs Chemical Synpases**
79
**Histone acetylation**
* histone acetylation directly **opens the chromatin structure,** allowing easier access to the transcription machinery-**euchromatin**
* addition of an acetyl (-COCH₃) group to lysine residues on histone proteins
* enhances neural plasticity and memory formation.
80
euchromatin
* You're ready to go
* more loosely packed and trancriptionally active
81
Bottleneck Effect
* **Sudden environmental changes** that rapidly decrease the number of individuals in a population-->**reduced genetic diversity**
82
Mitosis
83
Genetic Drift
* Surviving population produces and increases in number but still has less genetic diversity.
84
**Euchromatin vs heterochromatin**
AAMC - Acetylation activation methylation cilencing.
85
Meiosis and Mitosis
Differences and similarities
86
Meiosis I
* Reductional Division
* Homologous chromosomes seperate
87
Quick tip-transcription
From **DNA coding strand**-->**mRNA**:
**ONLY switch T-->U**
88
rRNA
* Catalyzes peptide bond formation
* Helps align mRNA and tRNA
89
Stop Codons
AUG (Met for start) **start codons**
* U Go Away (stop)
* U Are Gone (stop)
* U Are Away (stop)
90
mechanically activated calcium channels
91
Kidney Function
*
92
Leukocytes
White Blood Cells
93
Incomplete Dominance
94
Codominance
95
Natural Selection
* certain traits-->help offspring survice better-->more likely to have babies and pass those helpful traits on
96
Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium
97
Adaptive radiation
98
Stablizing selections
the process of diversifying characteristics
99
ACTH
100
Aneuploidy
101
Gram Positive vs Negative
102
Vitro vs Vivo
* Vitro-outside of a living organisim
* Vivo-inside
103
Innate Immunity
104
Nucleus
* mRNA transcripts exit the nucleus through small holes in the nuclear envelope called **nuclear pores**
* additional forms of RNA like **mRNA are made within the nucleus but not within the nucleolus.**
* Site of DNA replication, DNA transcription, post-transcriptional modification
105
Ribosomes
* **Translation**
* Proteins synthesized in **free-floating vs. RER** have different destinations and jobs.
* Smooth ER (No ribosomes): lipid and hormone synthesis, detoxifies harmful chemicals
106
Golgi apparatus
* acts as a** post-office**
* proteins are synthesized by a **ribosome**, undergo post-translational modification in the **RER**, then go to the **Golgi apparatus** to be packaged and exocytosed outside the cell and to its target elsewhere in the body. This is typical protein trafficking.
107
**Retrograde Trafficking**
* Take the **standard order** of the protein manufacturing process and flip it.
* plasma membrane-->golgi--> RER-->ribosome.
108
**Mitochrondria**
* Kreb’s Cycle, oxidative phosphorylation
* Maintains a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial mem- brane which is used to drive ATP synthesis
* **The proton gradient -->drives ATP synthase**
* Mitochondria dxs can be only inherited from mother
109
**baseline measurement**
* the **initial data** collected before any experimental intervention to serve as a **reference point**.
110
order of the cell cycle phases (G₁, S, G₂, M)
Go Sally, Go Make Cookies
111
Facilitated Diffusion
112
sympathetic fight-or-flight response
* Pupil Dilation
113
**Aldosterone**
*Kidneys (Distal tubules & Collecting ducts)
⬆ **Na⁺ reabsorption in the distal tubule**→ **Water follows → ⬆ BP & volume ⬆ K⁺ excretion**
114
**ADH-Vasopressin**
*⬆ **Water reabsorption via aquaporins **(***collecting ducts**)*-->BP up
* Less urine, more concentrated (only water reabsorbed, not Na⁺)
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**Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)**
* reduce excess blood volume, HBP, and high sodium levels
116
**single vs double cross over**
* A single exchange of genetic material: between two homologous chromosomes at one point--> creates genetic diversity.
* Double crossovers: between the same chromatids-->might enhance or cancel out recombination
117
**G-Protein Coupled Receptors (GPCRs)**
118
Glycolysis
🔹 ATP and NADH Produced & Used
💰 Investment Phase (Uses ATP):
Step 1: Glucose → Glucose-6-Phosphate (Uses 1 ATP)
Step 3: Fructose-6-Phosphate → Fructose-1,6-Bisphosphate (Uses 1 ATP)
💵 Payoff Phase (Produces ATP & NADH):
Step 6: NAD⁺ → NADH (per G3P, so 2 NADH total)
Step 7 & Step 10: Each produces 2 ATP, for a total of 4 ATP
⚖️ Net Yield: 2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 Pyruvate
119
**Insulin injection**
* Insulin promotes esterification, which means fatty acids are stored as triglycerides rather than used for energy.
* Insulin encourages **the storage of excess glucose as fat-->lipid synthesis**
120
free radicals
* **Free radicals = unstable molecules that can damage cells**
* Created when molecules lose or gain an electron, making them highly reactive.
121
Intermediate Filaments
* provide structural support and mechanical strength to cells
* keratins
122
amino acid residues
* May act as **Brønsted acids or bases, reducing shifts in pH**
✅ Why?
* Plasma proteins are composed of amino acids, which contain functional groups (carboxyl and amino groups) that can act as proton donors (acids) or acceptors (bases).
These side chains help stabilize blood pH by binding or releasing hydrogen ions (H⁺) as needed.
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**Analogous Structures**
✔ Same function, different evolutionary origin
✔ Different anatomical structures but serve a similar purpose
✔ Result of convergent evolution (organisms adapt to similar environments in different ways)
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**Homologous structures**
Different function, same ancestry (Divergent evolution).
125
Glucose
* All the alcohol groups are on the right side - except for the second alcohol group down.
* 3 alcohol groups in the front-left plane go (from left to right; down, up, then down)
126
channel proteins
* **allow for facilitated diffusion** and are generally named after the molecule they transport
* ex: sodium channels-a protein that allow for facilitated diffusion of sodium.
127
carrier proteins
* **transport protein**
* change shape to transfer molecules across the plasma membrane
128
cAMP
* ✔ cAMP is a second messenger that amplifies signals inside cells.
* ✔ Activates PKA, leading to metabolic regulation, heart rate control, and memory formation.
* ✔ Hormones like glucagon, epinephrine, and ADH rely on cAMP for their effects.
* ✔ Degraded by phosphodiesterase (PDE), which is inhibited by caffeine.
129
epimers
* **differ at only one chiral center,** not mirror image
* anomeric carbon-a special chiral center in cyclic sugars that determines alpha (α) or beta (β) anomers
130
**palindromic sequence**
* a segment of DNA that reads the same in both directions when considering the complementary strand.
131
hydroquinone
132
Hydroxylation
133
Somatic nervous system
* Voluntary (skeletal muscle, movement, reflexes, fast response)
134
Autonomic nervous system
* Nonvoluntary (organs, glands, homeostasis, slower response
135
thryroid hormome
* Thyroid hormones (T₃ and T₄)-**enhancing sympathetic nervous system (SNS) **
* Increasing sensitivity to **catecholamines** (epinephrine and norepinephrine)
136
**Ectoderm: attracto-derm**
* **Skin, hair, nails, eyes, teeth, the nervous system. Brain**
137
**Endoderm: internal organs
(digestive and respiratory systems)**
*** LIP GUTS** (central tube around which the rest of the body is formed)
* liver, intestinal epithelium, pancreas, gallbladder, urinary bladder, the glands, and stomach
***leave the kidney aside***
138
**Mesoderm** **(circulatory system+connective tissues)**
* Muscles, bones, blood vessels, and connective tissue if they’re referencing mesoderm.
* **Hearts**
* **Kidney**
* **"MUSCLE"**
(because mesoderm gives rise to muscles!)
139
Glycolysis
* occurs in cytoplasm
* Yields a net of 2 ATP and 2 NADH
140
aerobic
* **pyruvate-->acetyl-CoA-->Kreb's cycle**
141
Kreb's cycle
* very important bc it makes **NADH and FADH2**
* occurs in **mitochondrial matrix** of eukaryotic cells
142
ETC
* ETC occurs in mitochondria
* 1 NADH=10 Hs
* FADH2=6 Hs
* 10 Hs=3 ATPs
*** 1 NADH=3 ATPs
* 1 FADH2=2 ATPs**
143
hemoglobin
* changes in the production of protein subunits-->different protein structures
* cofactors, coenzymes, and prosthetic groups-molecules that play essential roles in enzymatic function of enzymes
144
cofactors
* inorganic ions or small molecules-required for the proper functioning of some enzymes
* cofactors-magnesium (Mg2+), zinc (Zn2+), and calcium (Ca2+).
145
Coenzyme
✔ Bind to the active site of an enzyme.
✔ Help transfer molecules (electrons, hydrogen, carbon groups, etc.).
✔ Release after the reaction is complete, ready for reuse.
146
Nucelotides Binding
* Phosphodiester bonds (covalent) link nucleotides into a chain (backbone).
* Hydrogen bonds (non-covalent) hold complementary DNA strands together (base pairing).
147
Hemoglobin & Oxygen Dissociation Curves
148
Taut vs. Relaxed state of Hb
* Taut="upright"-->doesn't attract any either.
* "relaxed"=he had a couple glasses of oxygen-->attract more
149
Right vs Left shift
* CADET-face right
* If you increase them, you'll get a right shift
150
**peptide hormone-water soluble**
* peptide/water=cell membrane receptor
151
**Steroid-lipid-soluble**
* diffuses through cell membrane to **work in cytoplasm or nucleus**
152
Protein Trafficking
* Ribosomes → ER → Golgi Apparatus
153
sperm pathway
SEVEN UP
154
**albumin/plasma proteins**
* **the pressure exerted by large molecules**, primarily proteins, in the blood plasma that draws water back into the capillaries from the surrounding interstitial fluid.
155
knee-jerk reflex
No brain involved
156
pleural cavity
* thin fluid-filled space between two membranes surrounding each lung
* Negative pressure, think pleural cavity
* Lung collapse, think pleural disruption
157
Epinephrine
* Secreted by the **adrenal medulla**
* Directly stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system (via acetylcholine)
158
anterior pituitary hormones
* **FLAT hormones** tell other glands what to do, while PEG hormones do it themselves.
159
**caspase activation**
* how your body turns inactive caspases (like **safety scissors) into active cell-cutting enzymes** that carry out apoptosis (programmed cell death).
160
**sense/coding strand**
* **SENSE = Same Sequence" (as mRNA, except T → U)**
* same base sequence as the mRNA
161
template/antisense strand
* what you TYPE from
* RNA polymerase uses the template strand to type out the RNA.
162
myoglobin
* oxygen binding molecules in muscles and organs
163
synapsis=“Snap” together
* **homologous chromosomes pairing up** during prophase I of meiosis
* allows for cross over and genectic variation
164
ACH (acetylcholine)
* **Parasympathetic system ("rest & digest")**: ACh slows the heart, increases digestion, etc.
* main chemical that carries out parasympathetic "rest-and-digest" actions
165
muscle fiber types
* fast twitch-->anaerobic
166
Sterols/cholesterol
* found mainly in **eukaryotic cell membranes**
* prokaryotic membranes generally lack sterols.
* **cholesterol-steriod structure: four fused carbon rings**
167
Bone resorption
* Bone Breakdown
168
**transcription location**
* nucleus
169
pancreas function
* Helps with digestion: makes special jucice that helps break down food
* Controls blood sugar – It makes hormones like insulin and glucagon
170
small intestine function
* Finishes digesting food
* Absorbs nutrients
171
progesterone
*prepares uterus for the **implantation **and **pregnancy**
172
estrogen
* estrogen-->a surge of LH-->ovulation
173
HCG
* maintain corpus luteum-->allow for **progesterone**
174
LH
* produced in the anterior pituitary
* LH-->Ovulation
175
antibiotics
* doesn't cause mutations in bacteria
176
spleen
*lymph organ-**housing immune cells which filter blood for pathogens**
* storing blood and recycling old blood
177
**Adenylate cyclase**
* **Produce cAMP-->a secondary messenger**
* activated by G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs)
* cAMP helps amplify signals inside the cell
178
**osmotic pressure**
* It **pulls water in to the area** with more solutes (like salt or proteins).
179
**hydrostatic pressure**
* Caused by: **Fluid pushing outward** (like blood pushing against vessel walls)
* It pushes water out of a space (like from capillaries into surrounding tissue)
180
capillaries
181
break donw of fats
* Glycerol → goes to the liver for **gluconeogenesis** (can become glucose).
* Acetyl-CoA → fuels the Krebs cycle or becomes ketone bodies.
* NADH & FADH₂ → used for ATP production in the mitochondria
182
Breathing-Lung Movement
183
blood vessel flowchart
184
antibiotics
* don’t cause mutations; they select for existing **resistant mutants.**
185
Energy source for our bodies
* carbs-->fat-->protein
186
mitotic division of oogonia
* fertilization and birth only
187
large instestine (colon) function
* **absorb water**, form stool, and support gut bacteria, making it essential for hydration, digestion, and waste elimination.
188
small intestine function
* moving digested food molecules from the intestine into the bloodstream or lymph
* **absorption of nutrients**
189
introns
* regulations of extrons around them
* regulate gene expression, enable alternative splicing for protein diversity, support mRNA stability and export, contribute to evolution through exon shuffling, and can produce regulatory RNAs like miRNAs
190
gene promoter
* **exists before the 1st exon**
191
clathrin
* form vesicles to assist in transport within cells.
192
Chemiosmosis
* how cells use a proton gradient to power **the production of ATP,** the energy currency of the cell.
193
transcription factors
* a protein that helps turn genes on or off by binding to **specific DNA sequences.**
194
pass through the membrane
* small and hydrophobic molecules
195
ABC transporter
* membrane protein that uses energy from ATP to **move substances across cell membranes.*
* Active transport
196
Fibroblasts
* Repair cells in connective tissue that** make collagen and other fibers to build, support, and heal your body’s tissues**
197
Cortisol
* Cortisol is a hormone that helps the body manage stress and energy balance.
* to break down proteins (from muscles) into amino acids, which can then be used by the body to make glucose or for other needs.
* If taking **too much cortisol-->muscle weakness**
198
adipocytes
* fat cells
* primarily store energy in the form of fat and also play important roles in metabolism, hormone production, and insulation.
199
Normal high-proliferation tissues
200
Allosteric regulation
* a molecule binds to **a site other than the active site**-->causing a change in the enzyme’s shape and altering its activity
201
ubiquitination
*a small protein called **ubiquitin** is attached to another protein to mark it for **a specific fate,** most often **degradation.**
202
Histone acetylation
* ** post-translational modification** and therefore it can be detected by western blots.
* helps loosen up the DNA so that genes can be turned on more easily
203
Prions
* misfolded proteins that **LACK DNA** and can **spread on their own**
204
Endosomes
* **Membrane-bound compartments** inside cells that play a key role in sorting and transporting materials that have been brought into the cell through **endocytosis**.
205
Tubulin
* a **protein** that serves as the** building block of microtubules**, which are essential components of the cytoskeleton in eukaryotic cells.
206
microtubules
* play several critical roles in cell structure, movement, and division.
207
antibodies
208
