bilkey Flashcards
telencephalon + diencephalon
forebrain
mesencephalon
midbrain
metencephalon + myelencephalon
hindbrain
most highly developed anterior part of forebrain consisting of cerebral cortexes
telencephalon
central part of brain located around 3rd ventricle, superior to brainstem, inferior to corpus callosum
diencephalon
consists of hypothalamus and thalamus
diencephalon
most rostral part of brainstem sitting above pons, rostrally join to thalamus
mesencephalon
embryonic part of hindbrain that differentiates the pons and the cerebellum
metencephalon
develops into spinal cord so contains all the sensory and motor paths
myelencephalon
1st layer of neocortex
axons, dendrites, few cell bodies
2nd layer of neocortex
densely packed stellate cells, few small pyramidal cells
3rd layer of neocortex
loosely packed stellate cells, intermediate sized pyramidal cells
4th layer of neocortex
bands of densely packed stellate cells; no pyramidal cells
5th layer of neocortex
few loosely packed stellate cells, very large pyramidal cells
6th layer of neocortex
loosely packed stellate cells, pyramidal cells of various sizes
white matter composition
myelinated pyramidal cell axons, few cell bodies
outside of cell
positive charge, Na+ and Cl-
inside of cell
negative charge, K+ and A- proteins
hodgkin - huxley cycle
synaptic potential -> depolarisation -> opening of channels -> flow of Na –> depolarisation
disease of demyelination
multiple sclerosis
scotopic
rods
poorer acuity achromatic vision
rods
phototopic
cones
high acuity colour vision
cones
periphery more dense in cones or rods
rods
fovea more dense in cones or rods
cones
damage to rods and cones
could not tell what an object was in front of them but could identify night and day
back layer of eye, converts light into electric signals
retina
layers of retina
receptor cells -> bipolar cells –> ganglion cells –> optic nerve fibre
what shows more of a smile on the mona lisa
lower spatial / lower frequency
transmits electrical impulses from your eyes to your brain
optic nerve
intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGC)
utilize the photopigment melanopsin which is maximally sensitive to blue light
ipRGC connect through to what
superchiasmatic nucleus
phenomenon in which a neurons response to a stimuli is inhibited by the excitation of a neighbouring neuron
lateral inhibition
where is lateral inhibition observed
retina and LGN
when two systems are competing with eachother
opponent processes
mach bands
dark line on the left and bright line on the right due to flow of inhibition across retina
opponent colours
blue / yellow + red / green
deuteranomaly
weak in green
protanopia
no red
approach-avoidance conflict
arises from competition between the drive to pursue reward and avoid harm
respond best to elongated bars or edges, orientation selective, have on or off subregions and monocular or binocular
simple cell response
are orientation selective, spatially homogeneous receptive fields (no on/off), nearly all binocular
complex cell response
retinal ganglion cells –> lateral geniculate nucleus
–> simple cells -> complex cells
electrode entering perpendicular
all columns same receptive field
electrode entering parallel
position of receptive fields of neurons at the tip shifts systematically
an ordered representation of the sensory environment where spatially adjacent surfaces are represented in adjacent positions in the brain
topographic organisation
human hearing range
20-20,000Hz
advantage of topographic/tonotopic representation
reduces axon volume
responsible for transduction of sound-evoked mechanical vibrations into electrical signals
hair cells
where are hair cells found
cochlea
what sits on top of hair cells
tectorial membrane
cell hairs moving back and forth, what kind of movement
mechanical
what happens in the cochlea
sound waves are transduced into electrical impulses
lower frequencies activate where in cochlea
down near the apex
higher frequencies activate where in cochlea
higher closer to base
tonotopic organisation
cells responsive to different frequencies along different parts of the central auditory system
scene analysis
(tonotopic organisation) frequency separation relates to objects in the environment
detection of beat promotes what
social cohesion
most connectivity into auditory cortex
top-down processing
using information from higher-level mental processes and prior experiences
top-down processing
processing that begins with the sense receptors
bottom up
the McGurk effect
visual systems interrupting the auditory system (mouth ma vs. ba)
topographic organisation
visual system
ability to remember the order of events as they occurred in time
sequence memory
cells that code a particular length of time
time cells
scalar expectancy theory
theory that perception can be altered by changes in neural system activity
pace maker increases
perception of time slows down
during saccade visual system?
suppresses input
upon fixation
nervous system fills in gap retrospectively
flash lag illusion
a visual illusion where in a flash, a moving object that appear to be in same location are perceived to be displaced from one another
active state labile –> inactive state fixed
consolidation after reactivation however, reconsolidation
inactive state fixed –> active state labile
reactivation
slower response to stress
release of cortisol
fast reaction to stress
adrenaline
pathway that processes visual information for visual perception (from primary visual cortex to temporal lobe)
ventral stream
pathway that processes visual information for purpose fo executing movement
dorsal stream
encoding a representation so it is identified regardless of size, orientation, colour
invariance
different cells respond differently to features and conjunctions of features
grandma cells
a grandmother cell mechanism provides excellent discrimination between objects
local encoding
requires separation of representations, sparse encoding, pattern separation
local encoding
issues with local coding
susceptible to damage, requires large number of units
allows for generalisation, pattern completion and generalisation, requires overlap between representations, distributed representation
dense coding
can still identify object despite only having seen it in another context
generalisation
can’t see all of object but can still identify it
completion
can distinguish different objects within one setting
separation
V4
colour perception
V5
motion detection - akinetopsia
looming
objects closer to you appear to move faster than those further away
visual illusions
no sensory change, yet perception change
visual illusions example of what
temporal binding
hallucinations
positive symptom of schizophrenia
motivation, apathy
negative symptom of schizophrenia
deficits in memory, thinking
cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia
what is reduced in schizophrenia in the brain
activity and size of frontal cortex and medial temporal lobes
what is decreased in brain in schizophrenia
activity GABAergic, inhibitory systems and at the NMDA subtype of glutamate receptor
season of birth prone to schizophrenia
spring
decreased activity GABAergic
a inhibitory system
evidence for reduced __ band energy for those with schizophrenia
gamma
what should be seen if brain is good during an ASSR
an oscillation in the EEG
who somewhat invested cell assembly biopsychology
donald hebb
associated with short term memory
reverberated activity
reverberating activity
reverberating neural activity in closed-loop circuitry
associated with long term memory
synapse strength
artificial stimulation to strengthen synapse
long term potentiation
how does LTP work
causes a depolarisation in membrane leading to unblocking of ion channels
long term depression
when not firing regularly, synapses are weakened
LTP induction depends on what
activation of the NMDA receptor
what does morris water maze test
long term memory
NMDA antagonist effect on LTP and memory
blocks LTP and prevents memory formation
what leads to LTP like changes
learning
what does reversal of LTP produce
forgetting
what does blocking of LTP do
prevents memory formation
what does producing LTP do
create false memories/masks existing memories
ability of synapse to keep strength overtime depends on
PKM
Zeta inhibitory peptide PKMZ used to what
interfere with the maintenance of acquired memories
karl lashley
stated memory is distributed throughout the cortex
principle of mass action
proportion of damaged brain, directly proportional to the decreased ability in memory function
surgery HM underwent
removal of temporal pole, hippocampus and adjacent cortex
HM post op
anterograde amnesia, retrograde amnesia 2 years prior, intact short term and remote memory, IQ improved
what does HM show
hippocampus is involved in memory consolidation
declarative memory
explicit + factual
procedural memory
implicit + skills
implicit memory
information you remember unconsciously and effortlessly
explicit memory
information you have to consciously work to remember
type of memory involved in recall of events and details
explicit
rhinal cortex location
medial temporal lobe
detects unknown items as novel by high processing demands and encodes them into memory OR detects known items as familiar by lower processing demands and encodes them less vigoursly
rhinal cortex function
patient RB
ischemic episode post heart surgery led to anterograde amnesia + minor retrograde amensia
what does patient RBs scans show
compressed hippocampus
a condition where blood flow (thus oxygen) is reduced or restricted in a part of the body
ischemia
rey-osterreith figure
patients copy diagram then later have to draw again without having copy in front
what did patient NA damage
the mediodorsal thalamus and mammillary bodies
what did patient NA get as result
diencephalic amnesia, anterograde amnesia for both verbal and visual material
diencephalic amnesia
disorientation of time
wernicke-korsakoff syndrome
damage to dorsomedial nucleus of thalamus + mamillary bodies from lack of thiamine (vitamin B1)
egocentric space
depends on our own position and point of view in frame
allocentric space
relies on remembering, recalling and recognising environmental stimuli like landmarks
bus drivers egocentric or allocentric
egocentric due to their set route
taxi drivers allocentric or egocentric
allocentric, they go all over
hippocampal size in bus drivers
bigger than the taxi
hippocampal size in taxi driver
increase in posterior, decrease in anterior
place cells
triggered in response to animal entering certain locations within its environment (place field)
term used when a person experiences a gradual loss of brain function due to physical changes in the structure of their brain
dementia
brain changes in alzheimers
extreme shrinkage of temporal lobe, hippocampus and enlarged ventricles
phonemic and semantic verbal fluency
test used to diagnose alzheimers
gradual build up and accumulation of protein fragment between neurons
amyloid plaques
breakdown of tau molecules
neurofibrillary tangles
what does not map well onto symptoms of AD
amyloid plaques
what maps well onto symptoms of AD
neurofibrillary tangles
acetylcholine production in AD
reduced
a treatment of AD
drugs that block cholinesterase
cholinesterase
breaks down acetylcholine
protein important in synaptic plasticity
amyloid precursor protein APP
when APP is cut into segments which is produced
beta amyloid
beta amyloid in AD
overproduced
what helps prevent production of beta-amyloid
enzyme alpha cutting protein in middle
three variations of APOE gene
E2, E3, E4
APOE
produced by astrocytes and transports cholesterol to neurons - impairs beta amyloid clearance
increased synapse formation with elevated early endosomes by APOE4
leads to increased AB generation
what predicts a cognitive decline in APOE4 group
elevated levels of a marker for pericyte injury
AD effects on astrocytes (3)
reduced APOE level, cholesterol accumulation, impaired AB clearance
AD effects on neurons (3)
increased synapse formation, elevated early endosomes, increased AB generatio
AD effects on microglia-like cells (3)
immune-prone, reactive, impaired AB clearance
what does BBB allow for
protection and transport regulation of serum factors and neurotoxins
what does APOE4 association with tight junction cause
a disruption of tight junctions and the opening of BBB
where is there an association of higher BBB permeability with APOE4 + tight junctions
hippocampus and parahippocampal gyrus
what is the higher BBB permeability in hippocampus and parahippocampal gyrus independent of
amyloid and tau accumulation
longitudinal study of ageing alzheimers disease
nuns study
what did the nuns study show
high idea density associated with intact cognition in late life despite presence of AD lesions
the psychological processes that contribute to planning, controlling and regulating flow of information processing
cognitive control
4 key components of cognitive control
working memory, inhibitory control, set-shifting, abstract thought
change immediate goals to be able to get round obstacles
set-shifting
denotes the appropriate usage of an object by a patient within an inappropriate situation
utilisation behviour
what is the driving factor in utilisation behaviour
cues within the environment
what lesions would be unable to suppress utilization behaviour
unilateral or bilateral frontal lesions
where did phineas gage damage
ventromedial region of both frontal lobes but spared dorsolateral
lesions where impair working memory performance
prefrontal lesions
what was the delayed non-match to sample task testing
associative memory and working memory
what was the associative memory task in the delayed non-match to sample test
cue and response, delay, cue and response
what was the working memory task in the delayed non-match to sample test
cue, delay, response
ability to learn and remember relationship between unrelated items
associative memory
what do delay cells do
keep the presentation of the cue stimulus active for a certain amount of time
the two periods within a delayed response task
delay period and cue period
N back task
requires participants to decide whether a stimulus appeared n items ago
what does the n-back task test
working (executive) memory
what did the added lures increase in the n-back task
activity of prefrontal
what does the tower of london task test
working and prefrontal memory
participants asked to preplan mentally a sequence of moves to match a start set of discs, executing one by one
tower of london task
controlling the automatic urges by pausing and then using attention and reasoning to respond appropriately
inhibitory control
effect of prefrontal damage on wisconsin sorting task
will keep sorting how they had been doing it despite being wrong
what increases with the wisconsin card sorting task
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
test for self control
mischels marshmallow test
synaptic development of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex activation
increases up to 20 and then gradually reduces
what does the go/no-go task test
inhibitory control
teenagers in go/no-go task
found it hard to not press go for smiley faces
trail making task
A-1-B-2-C-3-D-4
what does the tail making task test
set shifting
what is associated with better TMT scores
increased PFC thickness
using concepts to make and understand generalisations, concepts are not tied directly to specific experiences
abstract thought
what tests test the abstract rules
wisconsin card sorting and the delay nonmatch sample task
what does the abstract rule imply
different responses can be evoked to same stimuli depending on goal and context
describe simple spatio-temporal links between objects e.g. red light means stop
concrete rules
WCST first block is example of what
concrete rules
WCST second block
abstract rules
where are rule responsive neurons found
pre frontal cortex
wheres the activation, with the more abstraction of a task
further forward, anterior
multiple errands test
given tasks and locations to carry out
what did multiple errands test show for those with PFC deficits
disorganisation - completed tasks ineffectively / insufficiently
what does the multiple errands test/show
effect fo executive function deficits on everyday activity
define a set of responses suitable for a particular task and biasing these for slection
dorsolateral PFC function
what does removal of PFC enhance
creativity
what test shows creativity increase in removal / lesions of PFC
matchstick - making roman numerals equal.
involves anodal and cathodal stimulation by placing wires onto head
transcranial direct-current stimulation
anodal
depolarises - causes fire
cathodal
hyperpolarises - ceases fire
what did anodal stimulation of left PFC do
increase appropriateness and decrease novelty
human brain compared to other species
high proportion fo neurons in cerebral cortex
central executive theory
little man in brain controlling functions and choosing what to do
homunculus
little man
how many systems of decision making
2
what system of decision making is slow + controlled, rule-based and rational in analytic nature
system 2
what system fo decision making is rapid, undemanding of experiential-affective nature and automatic
system 1
an individuals tendency to perceive a desired result in future as less valuable than one in present
temporal discounting
when does a reward have greater value in terms of temporal discounting
has greater value when presented sooner
exploit-explore trade-off
how long you should exploit a source before exploring another one
describes the behaviour that maximises the ratio of expected foraging time in a patchy environment
marginal value theorem
where does emotion processing in amygdala project to
ventromedial prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate
kluver-busy syndrome
damage of amygdala / anterior temporal lobes
kluver-busy syndrome symptoms (4)
consumption of almost anything
increased sexual activity
investigates objects with the mouth
a lack of fear
vmPFC
related with decision making and anticipated pleasantness of future and past events
facilitate decision making by influencing potential responses via their affective value
somatic markers
damasios somatic marker hypothesis
use emotion to influence decisions
iowa gambling task
disadvantage deck of high risk, longterm loss
advantageous deck of low risk, longterm gain
play of iowa gambling task controls
once start loosing, move decks
what does iowa gambling task show
VMPC / amygdala damage disrupts emotional feedback
skin conductance response
indirect measure of sympathetic autonomic activity that is associated with both emotion and attention
SCR in healthy group
large SCR response in high risk deck compared to low
SCR in those with vmPFC and amygdala damage
no difference between high risk and low risk
alcohol on PFC
suppresses activity
stimulation theory
our ability to understand others is somewhat based on our ability to mimic their experience
where were mirror neurons first found
ventral premotor cortex
mirror neurons
modulate activity when a specific motor act is executed or similar act observed
has direct control over the movements of voluntary muscle
premotor cortex
faux pas test
used to understand anothers mental state - often autism
first element of faux pas test
detecting a faux pas - did anyone say something they shouldn’t have said
second element of the faux pas test
understanding the faux pas - who said something they shouldn’t have
third element of the faux pas test
understanding the recipients mental state - why should they not have said it
fourth element of the faux pas test
understanding the speakers mental state - why did he or she say it
5th element of faux pas test
details of story (control question)
3 parts of social connection
structural, functional, quality
social connection - structural
the existence of and interconnections among different social relationship and roles
social connection - functional
functions provided by or perceived to be available because of social relationships
social connection quality
the positive and negative aspects of social relationships
social connection structural roles
marital status, social networks/isolation/integration, living alone
social connection functional examples
received support, perceptions of social support, perceived loneliness
social connection quality examples
martial quality, relationship strain, social inclusion or exclusion
social hypothesis on why social connection is important for well-being
friends/family have impact on health behaviour through obligations and influences
evolutionary hypothesis of social connection
mechanisms have evolved to make isolation feel uncomfortable
what does isolation promote in the brain (6)
short term preservation, decreased impulse control, attention to negative social stimuli, hostility, anxiety, vigilance for social threats
short term preservation
increased cortisol release
increased levels of what predict alzheimers risk
cortisol
environmental exposures such as stress, diet, and lifestyle can all change the expression of genes.
epigenetics
three aspects of consciousness
sentience, self-knowledge, access to information
sentience
subjective experience
self-knowledge
identify problem and how it can be solved
access to information
ability to report on the content of some of brain processing
mirror self recognition test
touching themself instead of mirror shows self-recognition and reflects intelligence
hampton rhesus monkeys
performed test better when had freedom of choice rather than being forced into a choice.
when will rhesus monkeys take test
when they think they have good memory
what does rhesus monkey experiment show
monkeys were self-reflecting
levels of arousal and consciousness
awake, drowsy, sleep
hypnogogic hallucinations
occur while falling asleep
hypnopompic hallucinations
occur while waking up
locked-in syndrome
fully conscious but unable to move, damage to ventral part of pons
minimally conscious state
fixation, response to simple command
reduced activity in cortex
unresponsive wakefulness syndrome
open eyes but only reflex behaviour, damage to cortex and/or thalamus
results in locked in syndrome
damage to ventral part of pons
results in minimally conscious state
reduced activity in cortex
results in unresponsive wakefulness syndrome
damage to cortex and /or thalamus
bistable percept
an observer perceives the same stimuli in two different ways
rivalry
demonstrates fluctuating conscious experience despite fixed physical stimulation
two dissimilar images are presented simultaneously to each eye and perception alternates between them
binocular rivalry
connectivity during sleep
lucid activity during REM has higher connectivity than SWS
describes the way the brain integrates information across different subprocesses into an integrated whole
binding
what could changes in coherence and synchrony in schizophrenia be a reflection of
problem with binding
which neurotransmitters have a role in synchrony, associated with schizophrenia
gaba and glutamate
GABA
an amino acid that inhibits excitable transmission
glutamate
an excitatory neurotransmitter
