Beliefs in Society - Theories of Religion

Question 1

What are the three definitions of religion?

Answer 1

• Substantive
• Functional
• Constructionist

Question 2

What is a and the substantive definition of religion?

Answer 2

A definition that draws a clear line between what is and isn’t a religion.
- Weber (1905): religion is a belief in supernatural or superior being who cannot be explained by science

Question 3

Give a strength and weakness of the substantive definition of religion.

Answer 3

+ Cover a wide range of religions with a simple definition
- Accused of western bias, excluding religions, such as Buddhism

Question 4

What is a and the functional definition of religion?

Answer 4

A definition that focusses more on the social and psychological functions it performs.
- Durkheim (1915): defines religion in terms of social integration

Question 5

Give a strength and weakness of the functional definition of religion.

Answer 5

+ They are inclusive, they include a much wider range of beliefs than the substantive
- Might be too inclusive - not everything that socially integrates is a religion

Question 6

What is a and the constructionist definition of religion?

Answer 6

The argument that it isn’t possible to make a completely inclusive definition since different people define religion differently
- Aldrigde (2013): Scientology is a religion for its followers but states have denied it

Question 7

Give a strength and weakness of the constructionist definition of religion.

Answer 7

• This allows them to get closer to the meanings people give to religion
• It makes it impossible to make generalisation

Question 8

Durkheim (1915) and the definition of religion:

Answer 8

Religion is defined by how it divides society into the sacred (things set apart and forbidden that inspire awe) and the profane (things without special significance) and certain collective rituals. This worship of the sacred is also actually the worship of society as society is the only thing powerful enough to command such feelings.

Question 9

Durkheim (1915) and totemism:

Answer 9

He believed that he could find the essence of religion by studying it in its simplest forms: the Aboriginal Australian Arunta tribe collectively worshipped a totem representing the clan’s identity and origin, reinforcing social solidarity and sense of belonging.

Question 10

Durkheim (1915) and collective conscience:

Answer 10

Religion reinforces collective conscience and maintain social intergration via regular shared rituals that bind individuals together and allow us to function as a community and a society.

Question 11

Durkheim (1903) and the cognitive functions of religion:

Answer 11

Religion helps humans conceptualise ideas for reasoning and survival - religion provides consistent categories such as time, space and causation, such as tribes being divided provides humans with an early understanding of classification.

Question 12

Give three criticisms of Durkheim’s theory of religion.

Answer 12

• Worseley (1956): there is no sharp division between the sacred and the profane and different clans share the same totems
• Durkheim wrote in a pre-globalised period so it is important to understand that his theory is difficult to apply to a multicultural society with multiple religions
• Mestrovic (2011): postmodernists argue that his theory does not fit with the contemporary era as increased diversity has shattered collective consciousness

Question 13

Malinowski (1954) and the psychological functions of religion:

Answer 13

Religion reinforces solidarity by performing cognitive functions for the individual, in two situations:
- Where the outcome is important but uncontrollable: Trobriand Islanders do no ritual for safe lagoon fishing but ocean fishing merits ‘canoe magic’ rituals, serving as ‘god of the gaps’ and filling in human disagency
- At times of life crisis: at times of great change, religion minimises disruption, funeral rites reinforce solidarity of the survivors.

Question 14

Parsons (1967) and value and meaning:

Answer 14

Religion serves two other (Malinowski) key functions:
- It legitimises (via sacralisation) society’s central values, as Protestantism has done with America’s individualism and self-discipline
- It explains things that seem to defy human logic that would damage societal stability like why the good suffer

Question 15

Bellah (1991) and civil religion:

Answer 15

America (a multi-faith society) is unified by a civil religion, a religion that ties sacred qualities to those of the society itself, such as loyalty to the nation and a belief in God (the American God), serving the same functions as a traditional religion.

Question 16

Give three criticisms of functionalist theory of religion.

Answer 16

• It ignores the negative aspects of religion in favour of the functional - e.g. women
• Ignores how division in singular religions can damage solidarity - the New Right
• The idea of civil religion kind of loses the concept of religion a bit

Question 17

To Marx, how does religion function as an ideological tool?

Answer 17

• Religion legitimises the suffering of the poor and portray it as something virtuous, creating a false consciousness that discourages revolution.
• Religion also legitimises the rule of the dominant class - the Hindu belief in a caste system that can only be navigated by following the rules and being reborn in a higher caste, directly creating a fixed class system

Question 18

Give a bible quote that assists the bourgeoisie.

Answer 18

“it is easier for a camel to fit through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the Kingdom of Heaven”

Question 19

How does religion relate to alienation?

Answer 19

Marx sees religion as a consolation for the alienating nature of the capitalist division of labour, the ‘opium of the masses’ that blinds us to pain but does not treat the root cause: exploitation.

Question 20

Give four criticisms of Marxist theory of religion.

Answer 20

• Marxists show how religion can be a tool of the oppressor but ignores its positive functions
• Neo-Marxists argue that religion can play a part in social change, such as the role of Christianity in the Civil Rights Movement
• Other Marxists, such as Althusser (1971) reject the theory of alienation as unscientific and based on the idea of a ‘true self’
• Hill and Turner (2015): Religion does not necessarily work to control the population; in pre-capitalist society, Christianity was a major part of ruling-class ideology but had little effect on the peasantry

Question 21

How is there evidence of patriarchy in religious organisations?

Answer 21

They are mainly male-dominated despite the fact that 10% more women participate in religion - this sends the message to women that they are unholy

Question 22

Armstrong (1993) and the priesthood:

Answer 22

Exclusion from the priesthood is evidence of women’s marginalisation

Question 23

How is there evidence of patriarchy in places of worship?

Answer 23

They often segregate sexes, giving men a more central and sacred space, legitimising their domination

Question 24

Holm (2001) and religious taboos:

Answer 24

Taboos regarding menstruation and pregnancy are the ‘devaluation of women in religion’

Question 25

How is there evidence of patriarchy in sacred texts?

Answer 25

They largely feature male Gods and prophets. They also often feature anti-female stereotypes that deem women inferior, such as the Judaeo-Christian story of Eve causing humanity’s original sin

Question 26

How is there evidence of patriarchy in religious laws and customs?

Answer 26

They may give women fewer rights or restrict their activities so as to keep them subservient: laws like Purdah keep women economically dependent on their husbands.

Question 27

Woodhead (2002) and Catholic priesthood:

Answer 27

The Church’s unwillingness to ordain women is proof of their deep discomfort with the emancipation of women generally.

Question 28

Armstrong (1993) and pre-monotheism:

Answer 28

Women were at the centre of religions in the Middle East until the establishment of all-powerful male monotheistic Gods and prophets roughly 4,000 years ago.

Question 29

El Saadawi (1980) and a chicken and an egg:

Answer 29

Religion isn’t the source of women’s oppression, rather was re-shaped as an oppressive institution as patriarchal societies came into existence in the past few thousand years.

Question 30

Woodhead (2009) and feminism:

Answer 30

She criticises the equation of religion and female oppression, arguing that there are ‘religious forms of feminism’

Question 31

Gilliat-Ray (2010) and female religious liberation:

Answer 31

Some young British Muslims wear hijabs to gain parental approval to enter further education and employment, where Muslim women have traditionally not been allowed.

Question 32

Rinaldo (2010) and the piety movements:

Answer 32

Piety movements such as those in the Pentecostal Church support traditional patriarchal roles but empower woman to achieve their ends. However, it is important to note that these women also have education and employment to help.

Question 33

How do more liberal religious organisations ac as criticism for the feminist theory of religion?

Answer 33

These groups often work in favour of women’s liberation: the Church of England has had female bishops since 2015 and over 20% of its priests are women.