Beliefs in Society: Social Groups Flashcards
1
Q
Why is the relationship between social class and religion problematic?
A
Many classical sociological theories argued that the poorest in society would be the most religious. However current UK trends may indicate patterns have changed and measuring the relationship between religion and social class remains complex.
2
Q
How might Marxists see the relationship between class and religiosity?
A
- Argue that the WC are more likely to be religious - seek it out as a numbing agent to their oppression.
- Religion is a source of solace to working class individuals and they seek in it compensation for their oppression.
3
Q
How might Neo-Marxists explain the relationship between class and religious participation?
A
- Argue the working class are more likely to be religious because religion can support them and create change.
- Religion appeals to the subordinate and oppressed as a tool for change. Empirical example - 60s Latin America, Father Torres.
4
Q
How can Weberianism be used to explain relationships between social class and religiosity?
A
- Religion appeals to the middle class or those reaping the rewards of business, becuase the spirit of capitalism and calvanism have an elective affinity.
- Religion can be used to justify money making, and capitalist practices.
5
Q
How does the emergence of New Age Movements link to social class?
A
According to Bruce, NAMs appeal most to MC graduates in ‘expressive positions’ concerned with the self and human potential.
For example, community workers, counsellors, artists.
The middle class also have higher participation in NAMs becuse the have the financial capital and time to participate, they can affort to spend money on themselves and have the means and resources to join often expensive and consumerist NAMs.
6
Q
How do New Religious Movements link to social class?
A
- On the one hand marginalised and economically deprived individuals are more likley to join NRMs. Example - Jonestown attracted people from impovrished and subordiante backrounds.
- Millenarian movements appeal to the poor because they promise immediate improvement.
- Equally, those who feel relatively or spiritually deprived also feel the need to join (Wallis, Willis) - not all people who join NRMs are economically deprived.
7
Q
Ashworth and Farthing (2007)
A
Claim that individuals who are reliant on state benefits are acually the least likely to attend church services.
8
Q
YouGov survey (2015)
A
62% of regular church attenders come from middle class backgrounds.
9
Q
What percentage of regular church attenders come from middle class backrounds?
A
62%
10
Q
Voas and Watt (2014) - MC Church Attendence
A
Middle class church attendence is a stratergy aimed at making sure their children enroll in the best state schools which are often affiliated with either the Catholic Church or CofE.
11
Q
Church Attendence and Social Class
A
- Church attendence figures conflict with trends of religious belief.
- Churches in affluent, rural areas have higher attendences than those in urban rural areas.
- Individuals who are reliant on state benefits are actually least likely to attend church services.
- More than half of regular church attenders came from MC backgrounds.
12
Q
Why is church attendence higher in MC communities?
A
- Church attendence is used by MC parents as a stratergy to make sure their children enroll at the best state schools.
- Going to church is a way of legitimising and retaining status within the community, acts as a sign of respectability.
- Church going provides a level of religious and cultural capital which raises status.
- MC people may see church going as an opportunity to network with members of the community.
13
Q
Religious Organisation and Social Class
A
- Middle class people are more likely to feel attatched to traditional churches, whereas working class people are drawn to movements like Pentecostalism.
- Working-class individuals may mistrust traditional religions such as Anglicanism becuase they associate them with authority, the establishment, and royalty.
- WC people identify with non-conformist religions like Methodism which tend to be less judgemental and which provide practical solutions to their circumstances.
14
Q
Ahern and Davie (1987)
A
- Claim that working class people mistrust traditional religions such as Anglicanism because they associate them with authority, establishment, and royalty.
- Working class people identify more with non-conformist religions like Methodism which tend to be less judgemental and provide practical solutions to their circumstances.
15
Q
Martin (1990) - MC Church Attendence
A
Middle class people may see church going as an opportunity to network with members of the community and appear respectable in the eyes of their community.
16
Q
Davie (2013)
A
While the priesthoods of most religions are male, Davie notes in terms of religious practice, belief, self-identification, private prayer, and many other aspects, there are gender differences.
17
Q
Outline the key trends in gender and levels of religiosity
A
- More women than men participate in religious activities + believe in God.
- The priesthoods of most religions are male.
- More women say they have a religion, and more women than men say religion is important to them.
- Fewer women say they are atheist or agnostic.
- There are nearly twice as many women as men involved in sects.
18
Q
Miller and Hoffman (1995)
A
Women express greater interest in religion, have a stronger personal commitment to it and participate more. This applies to all ages, religious organisations and faiths, except Sikhs.
19
Q
Miller and Hoffman (1995)
A
Women express greater interest in religion, have a stronger personal commitment to it and participate more. This applies to all ages, religious organisations and faiths, except Sikhs.
20
Q
Ferguson and Hussey (2010)
A
Found Sikh men are more likely than women to practcie their religion.
21
Q
British Attitudes Survey (2012) - Gender and Religious Paticipation
A
Found more women say they have a religion.
22
Q
38% of women say religion is important to them
A
compared to just 26% of men
23
Q
Voas (2015)
A
only 26% of women say they are atheist or agnostic, compared to 34% of men.
24
Q
Bruce (1996) - Gender and Sects
A
Estimates that there are nearly twice as many women as men involved in sects.
25
Miller and Hoffmann - Reasons for Gender Differences in Religiosity
1. Gender differences in risk taking
2. Women are socialised to be more passive, obedient and caring
3. Women have fewer work commitments
26
Reasons for Gender Differences:
Miller and Hoffman - Risk Taking
* Gender differences in risk taking are a reason for differences in religiosity.
* Having no religion means people are risking condemnation to hell.
* Men are more risk averse than women, so they are more likely to take the 'risk' of atheism.
27
Reasons for Gender Differences:
Miller and Hoffman - Socialisation
* Women are socialised to be more, passive, obedient, and caring.
* These qualities are valued by most religions, so it follows that women are more likely to be attracted to religion.
* Men with these qualities are also more likely to be religious.
28
Reasons for Gender Differences:
Miller and Hoffman - Employment Status
* Women often have more scope for religious activities due to fewer work commitments.
* As religion has become more privatised, mens religiosity has declined more quickly.
* Religion has been driven out of the male dominated sphere of work, confining it to the private sphere of family - which women are more closely associated with.
29
What do Miller and Hoffman recognise about gender differences in religiosity, in terms of female employment?
They recognise that this factor (women's work commitment) is less relevant today as more women have challenging full time careers. This may account for 'the decline of female piety' where women are also withdrawing from religion.
30
Evaluate the claim that gender differences in risk taking affect levels of religious participation (Miller and Hoffmann).
* Miller and Hoffman put forward an outdated argument, by making grand, sweeping biological assumptions about risk taking and gender.
* The Sikh religion is also an outlier to their theory, proving female levels of participation are more complex than simple ideas about the character of a particular gender.
31
Evaluate the claim that women's fewer work commitments has led to higher levels of religious participation in females (Miller and Hoffmann).
Although women don't work they do carry out large amounts of unpaid domestic labour (linking to dual burden and triple shift), so fewer work commitments doesn't automatically mean they have more free time to commit to religious activities.
Since the introduction of key policies such as the Equal Pay Act in 1970, women have entered the workforce - so this factor is less relevant today.
32
Bruce (1996) - Female employment and Religion
Over the last two centuries religion has been gradually driven out of the male-dominated sphere of work, confining it to the private sphere of family and personal life - the sphere which women are most closely associated with.
33
Outline five explanations for higher levels of religious participation among women.
1. Church is a source of gender identity
2. Women have a closer proximity to birth and death
3. Women have fewer work commitments
4. Gender differences in risk taking
5. Socialisation patterns
34
How does **Greely (1992)** explain gender differences in levels of religious participation?
Argues that women's role in taking care of family members increases their religiosity. Women are also attracted to the church as a source of their gender identity.
35
Davie (1994) - Womens closer proximity to birth and death
Davie claims that women's closer proximity to birth and death, through child bearing, and caring for the sick and elderly brings them closer to 'ultimate questions' about the meaning of life that religion is concerned with. Women also see God as one of love and creation, whereas men view God as one of power and control.
36
Why might women be attracted to fundamentalism?
Because of the certainties of a traditional gender role.
They seek confort in the rigidity of gender roles prescribed in fundementalist religions, against the backrop of an ever-changeing, fast-paced society.
37
Why might women be attracted to **New Age Movements**?
* Women are often associated with nature, and creation, through childbirth and child-rearing (echoes **Davie**'s argument) - so are attracted to New Age movements that celebrate the 'natural', and cults of healing.
* Praise of the natural and the divine female in New Age movements gives women a higher status and sense of self-worth.
* New Age movements also emphasise the importance of being authentic rather than merley acting out roles - so become a way for women to escape their ascriped roles.
* New Age movements often emphasise emotionality and feeling, which are at odds with toxic masculinity.
38
How do Stark and Bainbridge (1985) explain higher levels of female participation in religion (in particular in sects)?
Claim that people may participate in religion to compensate for:
1. Social deprivation (poverty)
2. Organismic deprivation (physical and mental health problems)
3. Ethical deprivation (concern that the world is in moral decline) They claim these forms of deprivation are more common among women and this explains their greater religiosity more generally and their higher level of sect membership specifically.
39
What is the Pentecostal Gender Paradox?
Since the 1970s Pentecostalism has grown rapidly in many parts of the world, particularly among the poor. It is regarded as a patriarchal form of religion, yet despite this, it has proved to be attractive to women.
40
Martin (2000) - Pentecostalism and Gender
Describes the idea that pentecostalism is patriarchal, yet also attractive to women as the **'Pentecostal Gender Paradox'.**
41
Brusco (1995-2012) - Pentecostalism in Colombia
* Found that the answer to the pentecostal gender paradox lies in the fact that it demands its followers to adopt an ascetic (self-denying) lifestyle.
* Pentecostalism does insist on a traditional gender division of labour, where men retain their leadership role in the family and church.
* However, it also presents a powerful critique of machismo culture, and sexual irresponsibility, thus providing women with a means to improve their position, imposing controls on male behaviour.
42
Drogus (1994) - Pentecostalist Doctrine
Although official Pentecostal doxtrine is that men should have authority over women, church magazines and educational materials often encourage more equal relations within marriage.
43
Outline some of the recent trends in gender and levels of religiosity
* There has been an overall decline in church participation.
* There has been a significant decline in church attendence among females age 30-45 with a 16.4% fall in attendence between 1990 and 2005.
44
Brierley (2005)
Notes the decline in church going among women aged 30-45, with a 16.45 fall in attendence between 1990-2005.
45
There has been a 16.4%
fall in Sunday Church attendence between 1990 and 2005, in women aged 30-45.
46
How does **Brierley (2005) **explain the recent decline in church attendence amoung women aged 30-45?
He suggests the decline is the result of home, family, and work commitments.
47
How does **Brown (2001) **explain the recent decline in female church attendence?
* Argues since the 1960s, women have begun to reject traditional subordinate gender roles.
* Becuase Christianity was closely tied to these roles, women's rejection of subordination has led them to reject traditional religion at the same time.
* Although some women are attracted to New Age beliefs, their numbers are relatively modest.
48
Outline the key patterns of religious participation among ethnic groups
* Muslims, Hindus and black Christians are considerably more likely than white Christians to see religion as important.
* Most minority ethnic groups have higher than average rates of religious paricipation.
* However, fewer minority ethnic groups are observant in the second gendration.
* The more generations that exist within a community, the lower rates of religious participation.
49
Which religious groups are the biggest in the UK?
Those describing themselves as Christian - 72% of population.
50
Describe and explain the structure of UK society today.
The UK is a multicultural, multi-religious society, there are significant numbers of Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs (almost all of whom belong to ethnic minorities originating in the Indian subcontinent), while many Christians are of black African or Carribean origin.
51
O'Bierne (2004)
Suggests that ethnic minorities tend to see religion as a central element of their identity. Muslims in particular, indicated that religion was as important as their family with regards to shaping their identity.
52
African Carribean participants in O'Bierne's study ...
ranked religion as the third most important aspect of their identity. In comparason white participants ranked religion lower than family, occupation, education, age, interests, nationality, gender, income, and scoail calss.
53
Official statistics from 2011
Indicate that the difference between affiliation and membership figures suggests a clear difference in the way that different cultures engage in religion.
54
2011 Census
* Found that while black people make up 3% of the population, they make up 10% of the official church population.
* Of all white British people who affiliate with Christianity only 32% actively participate, compared to 80% of those from a Muslim backround.
55
Black people make up 50%
of the membership of Pentecostal Churches
56
Mood et al (1997) - Second Generation Religious Partcipation
Found some decline in the importance of religion for all ethnic groups and that fewer were observant, especially among the secong generation. Trends suggest that the more generations exist within a community, the lower the rates of religious participation.
57
Outline three reasons why ethnic minorities have higher levels of religious participation.
1. Pattern Maintenence
2. Cultural Defence
3. Cultural Transition
58
Explain what is meant by pattern maintenance?
Most ethnic minorities originate from poorer countries with traditional cultures, which produce higher levels of religious beliefs and practice. The argument is that on arrival to the UK their children maintain the pattern. However, this disregards the impact of their experiences as immigrants and minoroties in a new society.
59
How might **cultural defence** produce higher levels of religiosity among ethnic minoroties?
* Religion offers a sense of cultural identity and support in an uncertain or hostile environment.
* Religion can be a basis of communal solidarity and helps to preserve one's culture in a racist and oppressive foreign society.
60
Give an example which supports the theory of cultural defence
Black African and Carribean Christians found that white UK churches did not actively welcome them when they first settled, so some turned to founding or joining black-led often Pentecostal organisations.
61
How does **Bruce (2002) **contribute to the cultural defence theory?
Argues that religion offers support and a sense of cultural identity in an uncertain or hostile environment.
62
Bird (1999) - Cultural Defence
Notes that religion among minoroties can be:
1. A basis for community solidarity
2. A means of preserving ones culture and language
3. A way of coping with oppression or racism
63
How can the theory of **cultural transition** be used to explain higher rates of religiosity among ethnic minoroties?
* Religion can be a means of easing the transition into a new culture, by providing support and a sense of community.
* Religion is a stable, grounding force in the migraion process and promotes a sense of continuity.
* Multi-cultural churches allow the intermingling of ethnic groups so religion is a tool which promotes a wider sense of community.
64
Do the points on cultural defence and transition suggest that members of ethnic minorities are more religious?
NO - Shows that religion is prevalent, but the motivation for religious participation is social (community) rather than spiritual or theological.
Its also specific to migrants, however not all migrants are ethnic minorities, and not all ethnic minorities are migrants. Neglects second generation and third generation ethnic minotities.
65
Give an example which supports the theory of Cultural Transition
**Bruce ** applies cultural transition theory to the history of immigration into the UK, where religion has provided a focal point for Irish, African Carribean, Muslim, Hindu and other communities.
66
How can Cultural Transition Theory be used to explain **Mood et al**'s findings?
Once a group, such as Irish Catholics, has made the transition into wider society, religion may lose its role and decline in importance and significance.
67
Give an example of a study which can be used as evidence of both cultural defence and cultural transition
**Pryce's (1979)** study of the African Carribean community in Bristol.
Argues Pentecostalism is a highly adaptive 'religion of the oppressed' that provides migrants with values approprite to the new world in which they found themselves.
On the other hand, Rastafarianism represented a different response by radically rejecting the wider society as racist and exploitative.
68
Explain how** rastafarianism** is an example of cultural defence (Pryce - 1979)
It represeted a different response that radically rejected the wider society as racist and exploitative.
69
Explain how **pentecostalism** can be used as an example of cultural transition (Pryce - 1979)
Pentecostalism is a highly adaptive, 'religion of the oppressed' that provided migrants with values appropriate to the new world. It helped African Carribeans to adapt to British society by encouraging self-reliance and provided people with mutual support and the hope of imporving their situation.
70
Outline the patterns and trends linked to age and levels of religious participation
1. Under 15s are more likely to go to church than any other age group
2. The very elderly are less likely to attend church
3. For any age group, apart from those aged 65 and over, there is an ongoing fall in church attendence, sharpest among the young.
4. The number of 15-19 year olds attending church is projected to fall by half between 2015 and 2025 from 126,000 to 63,000.
71
Why do under 15s have relatively high levels of church attendence?
Because they may be forced to attend by parents. Religious primary schools may have events in the church or encourage children to attend services, more than high schools do.
72
Why do the very elderly have low levels of church attendence?
Because they are more likely to be sick or disabled and thus unable to attend. Higher death rates have also made this into a smaller demographic group which has reduced the total number able to attend, however the ageing population may impact on this trend.
73
The number of 15-19 year olds attending church is projected to fall by
half between 2015-2025 from 126,000 to 63,000.
74
Voas and Crockett (2005) - Age and Religious Participation
They offer tow possible reasons for age differences in religiosity
1. The ageing effect
2. The generational effect
75
Explain what Voas and Crockett (2005) meant by the **ageing effect**?
* The view that people turn to religion as they get older and become more interested in spirituality.
* As people approach death, they become more concerned about spiritual matters and the afterlife, or the repentence of past deeds.
* As a result they are more likely to go to church.
76
Explain what Voas and Crockett (2005) meant by the **generational effect?**
* As society becomes more secular, each new generation is less religious than the one before.
* There are more old people in church congregations today becuase they grew up in a period when religion was more popular
* Equally they also lived through events which may have brought them closer to religion such as war and rapid social changes.
77
Suggest reasons for higher levels of religious participation among older people, which don't include the explainations put forward by Voas and Crockett (2005)
1. Elderly individuals are more likely to be widowed or have friends who pass away, so they become lonely and go to church to socialise with others.
2. Older people have more time on their hands for religious commitment becuase they are retired from work
3. Young people are less stigmatised for choosing to be atheist
4. Religion gives older people a role in society and volunteer work within the church is a replacement for economic work
5. Older people have more life experience so may have suffered more losses, traumas, and obstacles making them more likely to seek comfort and consolance in religion.
78
According to **Voas and Crockett (2005),** which effect is most significant in explaining the age gap in religious participation?
The generational effect is more significant. Voas and Crockett (2005) predict that as a consequence the average age of church goers will continue to rise and the young become less and less willing to attend (secularisation).
79
What is the main reason why young people are less religious than older generations according to **Voas and Crockett**?
Secularisation
80
Gill (1998) - Religious Socialisation
Notes that children are less likely to gain religious socialisation and those brought up without religious beliefs are less likely to become churchgoers later in life.
81
Arweck and Beckford (2013)
Describe the reduction in children being brought up religiously as the 'virtual collapse of religious socialisation'.
82
Give an example to support the 'virtual collapse of religious socialisation' (Arweck and Beckford)?
Traditional Sunday schools which in the 1950s enrolled a third of all 14-year olds, have all but dissapeared. Even parents who share the same faith, have only a 50/50 chance of raising their child to be a churchgoer as an adult. When they are of different faiths, the chances fall to one in four.
83
Parents of different faiths only have
a 1 in 4 chance of raising their child to be a churchgoer as an adult.
84
Parents who share faiths have a
only have a 50/50 chance of raising their child to be a churchgoer as an adult.
85
Suggest other reasons, apart from religious socialisation, to explain why younger people may not be as religious today.
1. Peer group pressure - having a religion may be stigmatised
2. Scandals about religion that have been uncovered may dissuade them, e.g. abuse in the Catholic Church
3. Education - young people are taught rational explanations of the world
4. May view religion as old fashoned and boring - Brierley (2015)
5. Might have oplitical views opposed to the church e.g. views on abortion, LGBTQ+
6. Brought up to be more individualisatic - could create distain for collective worship
7. May be focused on other issues such as the climate crisis or other forms of activism, so lack the time for religious particpation.
86
Brierley (2015)
87% of 10-14 year olds found religion to be old fashoned and boring.
87
Two fiths of Churches have
no one under the age of 11 attending.
88
About 35% of churchgoers are
over 65
89
Within two or three generations
practicing churches will have a very small and very old minority of the UK population. Bruce (2012) predicts that with the exception of Pentecostal churches which will continue to appeal to younger members, this trend will continue.
90
Why is the age profile younger in **sects** than for denominations?
1. Young adults are more likely to be economically active with fewer financial responsibilities - so can give income to sects.
2. Young people are less likely to have established and firm social ties - so easier to commit fully to sect (world-rejecting).
3. Anomie - many sects target the young because their message of friendship, companionship and the like is more appealing to young people experiencing anomie as they start university (guardian article) or employment.
91
Why are young people more attracted to **cults** than older generations?
1. The young are more likely to be involved in counter-culture drug use, making them more susceptible to esoteric religious beliefs and fringe-culture ideas.
2. Cults offer to 'release the inner spirituality' of the individual, medicating anomie and providing opportunities for success in work and personal relationships, which havent already been achieved by younger people.
92
Outline two reasons for class differences in religiosity
1. WC - Mistrust of traditional institutions
2. MC - use of religion to network
93
Outline and explain two reasons why people from minority ethnic backrounds seem to have a higher participation rate in religion.
1. Marginalisation - Ethnic minorities seek confort from their oppression in religion.
2. Culture - Ethnic minorities see religion as a central element of their identity.
94
Outline and explain two reasons why older people seem to be more religious than younger people.
1. The generation effect - Older people grew up in a time when religion was more popular.
2. The ageing effect - People become more religious as they approach death, become more concerned with retribution, confession, and the afterlife.
