Beliefs in Society: Functionalism

Question 1

Summarise Durkheim’s views on religion:

Answer 1

1. Claims all societies differentiate between the sacred and the porfane, argues religion is based on this division.
2. Argues what is sacred provokes powerful emotions and inspies love, awe and respect, and is surrounded by powerful taboos and prohibitions.
3. To understand the role of religion in society Durkheim studied it in its simplest from - totemism.
4. In his view sacred symbols represent societies collective conscience.
5. Religious rituals and dogma promote social solidary, stability, integration and a value consensus by creating a sinle moral compass for memebers.

Question 2

How did Durkheim define religion?

Answer 2

A unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things which are set apart and forbidden.
However a religion for Durkheim is never simply a set of beliefs - it also involves collective rituals and practices in relation to the sacred. Argues that although sacred symbols vary, they all perform the essential function of uniting believers into a single moral community.

Question 3

Explain what Durkheim meant by sacred:

Answer 3

A special, significant and symbolic object central to a religion, which is representative of something. For example, Communion in Christianity, the crucifix, Buddhist statues, Hijab.

Durkheim argues what is regarded as sacred provokes powerful emotions and inspires love, awe and respect and is surrounded by powerful taboos. Anything can be regarded as sacred by people, it is not an inherent quality built in to something, it is bestowed.

Question 4

What does Durkheim mean by the profane?

Answer 4

The profane is anything non-sacred, ordinary, and secular. For example, a textbook, not the Bible or bread not communion.

Question 5

What does Durkhiem mean by collective conscience?

Answer 5

A collective moral compass, which binds individuals together. Shared worship and shared rituals promote this.

Question 6

Why are sacred symbols important to society according to Durkheim?

Answer 6

They represent society’s collective conscience, which is the shared norms, values, beliefs and knowladge that make social life possible - without whcih it would disintegrate.

Question 7

What are the social functions of religion - Durkheim?

Answer 7

• Secondary socialisation
• Promoting Intergartion
• Creating a value consensus and social solidarity
• Reminding individulas they are part of a larger community
• Maintenence of society - through single moral compass
• Moral Guidence

Question 8

Summary - Collective conscience (Durkheim):

Answer 8

1. Sacred symbols represent societiy’s collective conscience.
2. Regular shared rituals reinforce the collective conscience and maintain integration - celebrate social unity of the group.
3. Participating in shared rituals - social adhesive, binds individuals together reminding them that they are part of a single moral community to which they owe their loyalty.
4. Rituals also remind the individual of the power of society.

Question 9

What is an important individual function of religion, according to Durkheim?

Answer 9

Reminder of the power of society. It makes the individual feel they are part of something greater than themselves, reinvigourating them and strengthening them to face up to life’s trials - acts as motivation to overcome obstacles that would otherwise defeat us.

Question 10

What are the cognative functions of religion according to Durkheim?

Answer 10

1. Religion is a source of intellectual and cognative capacities. It is the origin of human thought and reason - providing us with the basic concepts of time, space, and causation - Spiritual Explanations. For example, ideas about a creator bringing the world into being at the beginning of time.
2. To share our thoughts we need to use the same categories as others and religion provides us with these - underpins cohesion and stability. For example, the use of the Christian calendar or BC/AD in history.

Question 11

Give an example of a way religion can improve cognitive function.

Answer 11

Gives individuals a conceptual way of understanding History - BC, AD. Is a framework for categorical, shared knowledge.

Question 12

Is society seen as sacred or profane according to Durkheim?

Answer 12

Sacred - society is special and symbolic because we inhabit it, although people worship God they also worship society and the stability it provides. Society and God are one.

Question 13

What is totemism?

Answer 13

An elementary, simple religion where society is divided into clans and each clan has its own totem.

Question 14

Why did Durkheim chose to study the Arnuta in Australia?

Answer 14

He hoped to understand the essence of religion by studying it in its simplest form, in a simple society.

Question 15

Why did Durkheim chose to study the Arnuta in Australia?

Answer 15

He hoped to understand the essence of religion by studying it in its simplest form, in a simple society.

Question 16

What does the totem symbolise in totemism?

Answer 16

An outward visible symbol of the clan and God.

Question 17

What were Durkheims conclusions regarding totemism?

Answer 17

• The rituals surrounding the totem represented the power of the group and thus served to reinforce the group’s solidarity and belonging.
• The visualising force of their society was a religious symbol.
• God and society are one, when people worship God the real object of their veneration is society.
• People see society as more powerful and significant as the individual.
• People worship the moral unity of society thus religious worship is explained in terms of its social functions.

Question 18

Outline and explain two functions of religion (10m)

Answer 18

1. Cognative/intellectual functions - way of understanding.
2. Maintaining unity, integartion and solidarity - shared rtuals.

Question 19

Evaluate Durkeheims views on religion

Answer 19

• Religion can be incredibly divisive and causes conflict/war.
• Ignores how religion can be a source of oppression.
• Religion ostracises many of its members e.g LGBT+
• Pluralism undermines argument of social integration - diversity of faiths - can’t be applied to large scale multi-faith societies.
• There are unclear distinctions between sacred and profane - blurring boundaries e.g. Youth Village.
• Theory may explain integration within a religious community but not conflicts between them.

Question 20

Evaluate Durkheims view that religion can increase cognative functions:

Answer 20

Religion lowers cognative function becuase based on subjective narrative rather than objective fact. Encourages people to accept simplistic narratives over science and evolution. Cognative functions replaced by other forms of knowledge e.g. science.

Question 21

Evaluate the view that religion promotes social stability:

Answer 21

Religion can harm social stability - doomsday mentality, hysteria, evoking fear - heaven/hell.

Question 22

Give one reason why Durkheims theory has limitations.

Answer 22

It may apply to small-scale societies with a single religion. It is harder to apply to large-scale multi-faith societies, where two or more religions are in conflict.

History and contemporary societies are littered with examples of conflict, terrorist, wasr and persecution which have a religion dimension.

Question 23

Suggest why religion might not always allow individuals to feel a sense of solidarity and belonging.

Answer 23

Many individuals feel exculded or alientaed from their religion if they do not conform to all of its teachings. Others may feel unable to maintain the high expectations of their religion.

Question 24

Mestrovic (2011) - Postmodernist Criticism

Answer 24

Argues Durkheims ideas cannot be applied to contemporary society, because increasing diversity has fragmented the collective conscience, so ther is no longer a shared value system to enforce.

Question 25

Worsley (1956)

Answer 25

Challenges the view that there is a sharp division between the sacred and the profane.

Even if Durkheim is correct about totemism this does not prove he has discovered the essence of all other religions.

Question 26

Give 3 examples of a conflict/war with religious dimesnions to it:

Answer 26

1. Armenia-Azerbaijan war - ethnic and territorial conflict betwen christian/Muslim.
2. 1838 Mormon War - Conflict between mormons and non-mormons.
3. Assasination of Shinzo Abe (2022) - Suspect shooter blames the unification church.
4. Palenstine - Israel conflict
5. The Troubles in Ireland
6. The Cruisades - geo-political, wanting to conquer religious sites.

Question 27

What is Civil Religion?

Answer 27

A belief system that attatches sacred qualities to society itself.

Question 28

Bellah (1970) - Americanism

Answer 28

Argues what unifies American society is an overarching civil religion - faith in Americanism or the ‘American way of life’.

Question 29

Bellah (1970) - America’s ‘nation faith’.

Answer 29

• Argues civil religion integrates society in a way individual religions cannot.
• Americas institutionalised civil religion involves loyalty to the nation-state and a belief in God, which are equated with being true American.
• Civil religion sacralises the American way of life and binds together Americans from many ethnic and religious backrounds.

Question 30

How is Ameicanised civil religion expressed?

Answer 30

In various rituals, symbols, beliefs, prophets and martyrs such as the pledge of allegence to the flag, singing the national anthem, the Lincon Memorial and phrases such as ‘One nation under God’.

Question 31

What Biblical models lie behind American Civil Religion?

Answer 31

• The Exodus
• A chosen poeple
• The promised land
• New Jerusalem
• Death and rebirth

Question 32

What is the significance of the Lincon Memoral?

Answer 32

Every American knows the story of Abraham Lincon who was born in a log cabin and died from an assasins bullet in 1865 - he was the personification of the American Dream. Pictured on the lincon memorial, coins e.c.t he has become an almost mythical figure - symbol of Americansim.

Question 33

What is the significance of the wagon train?

Answer 33

In the 19th century there was vast migration to new lands in the West. Many migrants travelled in wagon trains, pushing back the American frontier and opening up new areas to white settlement. These ‘heroic treks’ are pictured in media and commemorated. Sometimes the ‘virgin territory’ of the West is pictured as the promised land and settelers as the chosen people.

Question 34

How are civil religion and Christianity linked?

Answer 34

Americanism and Christianity indeed have much in common in terms of archetypal symbolic figures, morals, and metaphors, however American civil religion is not in any sense specifically Christian. ‘God’ in ‘One nation under God’ is not specifically Catholic, Protestant, or Jewish, but rather an ‘American’ God.

Question 35

Why have the wagon train and Abraham Lincon become symbols of Americanism?

Answer 35

Lincon = Replacement Jesus figure, his values align closely with those of the American people, assasination makes him a martyr for the cause.
Wagon = tied closely to Ameican history, symbol of the pioneering American setteler.

Question 36

Which sociologist studied civil religion in America?

Answer 36

Bellah (1970)

Question 37

How can beliefs, symbols, and rituals of Americanism be seen as ‘religious’?

Answer 37

• Thanksgiving/4th July - treated like a religious holiday.
• The flag - sacred symbol, worshipped, like the cruxifix in Christianity.
• Lincon - replacement figure for Jesus.
• Pledge of allegience - embewed with religious connotations.
• Mount Rushmore - Makes saints out of American Presidents.

Question 38

How does civil religion reflect the functionalist ideas of religion?

Answer 38

• Acts as a social adhesive, uniting individuals into a heterogeous group.
• Collective festivities such as Independence day and shared rituals like the pledge of allegence promote a sense of community and social solidarity.
• Helps to promote a value consensus through shared moral belief system in the superiority of America.
• American dream helps to promote meritocracy - belief that everyone has the opportunity to achieve.

Question 39

Give two ways in which civil religion reflects Functionalist ideas on religion.

Answer 39

1. Collective festivities and rituals such as the pledge of allegence or Independence day promote social solidarity by creating a sense of community and togetherness.
2. Promotes a value consensus by laying down moraal guidelines and shared belief system e.g. through the constitution.

Question 40

Evaluate the view that civil religion helps promote social stability, solidarity, and a value consensus:

Answer 40

1. Symbols of Americanism can have negative connotations for many for example the flag is a reminder of slavery or the wagon a symbol for the atrocities of colonisation - not everyone feels part of a community through dhared rituals.
2. Americanism involves a belief in God which ostracises atheist Americans from a sense of community.

Question 41

Malinowski (1954)

Answer 41

• Belives religion reinforces social norms and promotes social solidarity. However does not see religion as reflecting society as a whole.
• Drawing on anthroplological data he emphasised the psycological functions of religion.

Question 42

Two types of emotionally disruptive events where religion becomes functional - Malinowski:

Answer 42

1. Times of life crises
2. Uncontrollable and uncertain events

Question 43

From a functionalist perspective what key functions are performed by a funeral ritual?

Answer 43

• Allows for grief and mourning - maintaining the emotional stability of the individual.
• Promotes social solidarity - allows members of society to come together, community binds together.
• Prevents deviant behaviour arising from grief - gives sense of closure, reducing emotional stress.
• Reminder that individual is not alone - has the support of society.

Question 44

What does Malinowski mean by times of life crisies?

Answer 44

Events such as birth, puberty, marriage and especially death mark major changes and can be disruptive. Religion and religious ritual can diffuce the notion of crisis at these times according to Malinowski.

Question 45

What does Malinowski mean by uncontrollable and uncertain events?

Answer 45

Unpredictable occasions such as the start of a journey, are preceded by rituals to reduce anxiety.

The trobriand islanders of the Western Pacific do not nengage in religious rituals before fishing in the lagoon as it is safe, however ocean fishing is more dangerous and is always accompanied by a ritual of ‘canoe magic’.

Question 46

What functions do ‘canoe magic’ or rituals preeceding uncertain events fulfil?

Answer 46

Reduces anxiety, fulfils a premitive psycological function ‘just in case’. Reduces stress and boosts confidence. Promotes social solidarity by binding together individuals before they take part in potentially dangerous activity.

Question 47

Parsons (1965)

Answer 47

Identifies two essential functions performed by religion in modern societies:
1. It is the primary source of meaning
2. It creates and legitimises society’s central values

Question 48

Provide examples of generalised norms which reflect religious beliefs:

Answer 48

Respecting the elderly - 10 Commandments.
Follow the law - like following the law laid down in Bible.
Not Cheating - Adultery is a sin.
Saying ‘Bless you’ after someone sneezes.
Dont lie - 10 Commandments
Kindness - Golden Rule in the Bible.

Question 49

Outline and explain two functions of religion:

Answer 49

1. Acts as a source of psycological comfort during times of life crises - Malinowski
2. Promotes a value consensus by providing moral guidelines - Parsons

Question 50

Do functionalists see religion as a conservative force or a force for change?

Answer 50

Conservative force - reinforces socail order, positively maintains stability, integration and community.

Question 51

How does religion act as the primary source of meaning (Parsons)?

Answer 51

• Provides members of society with explanations of events that might otherwise appear uncontrollable, haphazard and contradictory.
• Religion answers the ‘ultimate’ questions about the human condition - Fosters consensus on debates of ultimate value.
• Helps individuals adjust to crises and disappointments.

Question 52

Give an example of a question of ultimate value religion has the answer for.

Answer 52

Why good people suffer and why people die young - such events defy our sense of justice and make life appear meaningless, could undermine comittment to society’s values. Religion provides answers to such questions, e.g explaining suffernig as a test of faith that will be rewarded in heaven on part of “Gods plan”.

Question 53

How does religion create and legitimise society’s central values?

Answer 53

• Religion provides guidelines for human action and standards against which people’s conduct can be evaluated - promotes value consensus and social stability.
• Parson claims societal norms are a reflection of religious belief.
• In America, Protestantism has sacralised the core Aemrican values of individualism, meritocracy, and self-discipline.

Question 54

How does explaining suffering as a test of faith help to maintain an equillinrium and social order?

Answer 54

• People wont go against the value consensus, maintaining the status quo.
• People wont question their suffering and the structure of society if they see it as part of “Gods plan”.
• Reward in the afterlife encourages people to stick to societies rules and order - value life after death more than reality.

Question 55

Identify two criticisms of Malinowskis Functions of religion:

Answer 55

1. Puts too much emphasis on times of life crisis, religion is not limited to despirate times.
2. Religion isnt always comforting in times of crisis, the notion of hell and damnation can be unsettling, frightening language used.

Question 56

Evaluate Parsons/Malinowskis views on religion:

Answer 56

• Religious ceremonies can be unequal, undermines equillibrium - Feminists believe marriage has connotations of oppression.
• Religion can promote panic in times of crisis - hell/damnation.
• Black and white either or view.
• In contemporary society science has replaced religion as the primary source of meaning.
• Polanyi (1958) - Argues religion contains a circular argument. It is ironic to say religion can explain the contradictory or unknowable.