Beliefs in society - paper 3 Mock

Question 1

Substantive Definitions

Answer 1

Focus on the content of religious belief, such as belief in God or the supernatural. To be a religion, a set of beliefs must include belief in God or the supernatural.
Weber defines religion as belief in a supernatural power that is above nature and cannot be explained scientifically. Substantive definitions are exclusive. They draw a clear line between religious and non-religious beliefs.

Question 2

Substantive Definitions evaluation

Answer 2

+They conform to a widespread view of religion as belief in God.

-Dont see that beliefs and practices that perform similar functions to religion but do not believe in God as a religion.
-Also accused of Western bias as they exclude religions like Buddhism.

Question 3

Functional definitions

Answer 3

Define religion in terms of the social or psychological functions it performs for individuals or society. Durkheim defines religion by the contribution it makes to social integration, rather than any specific belief in God or the supernatural. Yinger (a functionalist) says that religion answers ‘ultimate questions’ about the meaning of life and what happens when we die for people.

Question 4

Functional definitions evaluation

Answer 4

+inclusive allowing us to include a wide range of beliefs & practices that perform functions such as integration.
+There is no bias against non-Western religions such as Buddhism as they do not specify belief in God.

-However, just because an institution helps integrate individuals, does not make it a religion. Collective chanting at a football match might give individuals a sense of integration doesn’t mean it is a religion.

Question 5

Constructionist definitions

Answer 5

A interpretive approach that focuses on how members of society themselves define religion. They argue its not possible to produce a single universal definition of religion since in reality different individuals & groups mean very different things by ‘religion’. They are interested in how definitions pf religion are constructed, challenged and fought over. Definition of religion can be constructed and are influenced by who has power to define the situation

Question 6

Constructionist definitions evaluation

Answer 6

+they do not assume that religion always involves a belief in God, or it performs similar functions for everyone in all societies.
+there approach allows them to get close to the meaning people themselves give to religion
-makes it impossible to generalise about the nature of religion since people may have widely differing views about what counts as religion

Question 7

Functionalist theory of religion.

functions of religion

Answer 7

society is a system of interrelated functional parts. Each institution within society performs certain functions. Religion is an institution that has many functions.

Provides guides for how we act, brings people together, emotional support, provides security, creates social harmony

Question 8

Durkhim (1915)

Answer 8

-Institutions play the main part in creating and maintaining the value consensus, order and solidarity of a society.
-He accepted that religion plays a very important role within society
-Not interested in the belief in Gods or spirits but in the distinction between the sacred and the profane.
Sacred- thing that inspire feeling of awe, fear and wonder and are supported by taboos and professions. Profane- things with no special significants, things that are ordinary an madane

Question 9

Durkhim (1915)
Collectivism

Answer 9

-religions have rituals or practices to show the importance of the sacred they are collective preferred by a social group.
-sacred thing provoke powerful feelings in believers as represent something of great power.
-Durkheim belief this can only be society itself since society is the only thing powerful enough to coma such feelings.
-when people workship the sacred symbol they are worshipping society
-Sacred symbols vary from religion to religion but they all preform the essential function or uniting believer into a signal moral community

Question 10

Durkhim (1915)
Totemism- study of Arunta in Australia

Answer 10

-Studied Astralian aboriginal clans to see religion in its basic form
-Arunt aboriginal cals would come together to preform rituals involving worship of a sacred totem
-the totem is the clans emblem like and animal or plant that symbolises the clans origin and identity
-the shared ritual serve to reinforce the groups solidarity and sence of beloning
-when they worship the totem they worship society even though they are unaware of this
-The totem inspires feelings of awe because it represents the power of the group in which the individual is utterly dependant

Question 11

Durkhim (1915)
The collective conscience

Answer 11

-The sacred symbols represent society’s collective consensus. (shared norms, values, beliefs and knowledge that makes social life and actions between individuals integration)
-regular shared rituals reinforce the collective consensus and maintain social integration
-participating in shared rituals binds individuals together, reminding them that they are part of a single moral community to which they owe their loyalty
-religion performs an important function for the individual by making us feel a part of something greater -religion re-integrates and strengthens us to face lifes trials and motivates us to overcome obstacles

Question 12

Durkhim (1915)
Cognitive functions of religion

Answer 12

-religion is the origin of the concepts and categories need for reasoning, understanding the world and communicating
-religion provides basic categories such as time, space and creation
-Durkheim say religion is the origin of human through, reasoning and science

Question 13

Evaluation of Durkhim (1915)
criticism

Answer 13

-Worsely (1956) no sharp division between the sacred and the profane and different clans share the same totem
-postmodernists such as Mestrivie (2011) argues the idea cannot be applied to contemporary society increasing diversity has fragmented the collective consensus. There is no longer a shared value system for religion to reinforce
-His theory works on a small scale society with a single religion. hard to appy to societies where there are multiple religious communities may cause conflict

Question 14

Functionalist theory
Malinowski

Answer 14

Psychological function- religion promotes solidarity by preforming phycological functions helps people cope with emotional distress. if un-delt with this distress would break down the social solidarity.

Rituals provide psychological comfort and social cohesion in terms of uncertainty or anxiety. Death is the key reason why religion exists: belief in immorality helps to cope with loss, funeral rituals helps cope with mourning, deaths at sea could be interpreted as the will of the Gods which minimised mourning

All of this provides protection against society ending up in disorder

Question 15

Malinowski
2 functions religion preforms studied Turbriand island of the wester pacific

Answer 15

1. where the outcome is important but controllable and uncertain. Lagoon fishing (safe and uses predctable methods of poising. no ritual needed) Ocean fishing (dangerous & uncertain. Canoe Magic performed rituals to ensure safety. Gives people a sense of control and confidence to undertake hazardous tasks ‘God of the Gaps’ – fills the gaps in human control)
2. At times of life crisis (death, birth, puberty, marriage)
   religion helps to minimise disruption to solidarity in social groups. Funeral rituals reinforce a sense of solidarity among survivors. Life after death gives a sense of comfort.

Question 16

Parson
Legitimacy of society’s central values
Primary source of meaning

Answer 16

Religion helps individuals cope with unforeseen events, uncomfortable outcomes and creates and legitimise society’s central values.
Religion creates and legitimises society’s basic norms & values by making them scared
provide a source of meaning. answers ultimate questions on events that other wise defy our sence of justice and make our lifes seem meaningless which would lead to undermining our commitment to societies vales. Helps people to adjust to events or circumstances and help maintain stability

Question 17

Bellah
Civil religion

Answer 17

-looked at how religion unified society in a multi-faith society
-society has an overreaching civil religion (belief system that attaches acred qualities to society itself) Civil religion integrates society in a way that churches and denominations cannot
-Americal civil religion involves loyalty to the nation-state and a belief in god both are being true to America. Expressed in symbols and beliefs such as pledge of allegiance to the flag
-Not a specific Jewish, Catholic, Protestant God. But an ‘American’ God. Sacralises the American way of life blinds togther Americans from many different ethnic and religious backgrounds

Question 18

Functionals alternative

Answer 18

-non-religious belifes and practices that preform functions similar to these of originated religion e.g. reinforce share values monitor social cohesion.
-Although American Civil religion involves a God dosent have to be the case other belief system provide the same function
-problem with functional alternative is that it ignores what makes religion distinctive and different

Question 19

Evaluation of functionalism

Answer 19

+Emphasises the social nature or religion & the positive function it preforms
+Civil religion overcomes the problem to some extent by arguing that societies may still have an overarching belief system shared by all
-But is this religion especially if its not based on a belife of supernatural
-Neglects negative aspect such as religion as a source of oppression of the poor woman
-Ignores religion of division and conflict

Question 20

Marx view on religion
Ideology

Answer 20

-Ideology is a belief system that distorts peoples perception of realisty in ways that serve the ruling class. Argues the class that controls economic production also control church, education & media. Religion operates as an ideological weapon used by the ruling class to justify the poor as something inevitable and god-given

Question 21

Marx view on religion
Product on alienation

Answer 21

-alienation involves becoming separated fro or losing control over something that one has produced or created. It exists in all class societies more extreme under capitalism. Workers are alienated because they do not own what they produce and have no control over the production process and thus no freedom to express their creativity. Bad in factories where workers endlessly repeat the same task loosing all meaning or skill. in dehumanizing conditions exploited turn to religion as a form of consolation.

Question 22

how religious text consolidate marxist ideas

Answer 22

‘is the opium of the people’- religion acts as an opien to dules the pain. But like opium religion masks the underlying problem of exploration not treat it.

‘religion as a spiritual gin (lenin)’ religion is an intoxicat doled out to the masses by the RC to confuse them and keep them in there place. create a mystical fog that obscure reality.

Religion miss leads the poor into believe suffering is virtous & will favor them in the after life ‘It is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than a rich man to entre the kingdom of heaven.’ Creates fails class consciousness prevents them from challenging there cituaction.

legitimize the power of the privileged dominate class by making there position seem divinely ordained. ‘the divine right of kings’ belief the king is gold representative on earth and is owed total obedience. Disobedient is not just illegal but sinful challenging gods authority.

Question 23

Hindu Caste System support marxist views- religions justify inequality

Answer 23

Hindu’s believe they are born into their caste (similar to social class) based on their actions in previous life. If born into a lower caste, they are being punished by the gods, those born into top castes are being rewarded
Hindus in lower castes are encouraged not to question their current exploitation in the hope that when they are reincarnated they will be rewarded in the next life

Question 24

Bloch (1959)- Neo-Marxism

Answer 24

Religion had a ‘dual character’ as it had both a positive and negative effect on social change.

In many ways religion acted as a conservative force, however it could also be seen as a ‘principle of hope’ that could inspire the proletariat to revolt in the most extreme circumstances.

Question 25

Gramsci- Neo-Marxism

Answer 25

Although the church played its part in maintaining the cultural hegemony (dominant set of beliefs) that benefitted the RC, it could also produce its own ideas that could inspire social change.

This would often occur if clergy members from the lower parts of the church hierarchy felt that they could make a difference in their community, rather than persisting with the official messages of the church.

This individual autonomy could, in some circumstances, override the RC ideology that was promoted by the religion as a whole

Question 26

Maduro (1982)- Neo-Marxism

Answer 26

Agreed with Gramsci’s ideas argued in some countries where protests were banned by dictatorships, the church could be the only safe outlet of frustration for the proletariat.

Religious leaders could be charismatic figures that inspire congregations to achieve real social change. He argues they would be led by their conscience rather than sticking to the message of the religion.

Religious leaders would be seen as untouchable by the oppressive governments because they were seen as sacred by their followers. If they came to any harm, an
uncontrollable uprising could occur.

He believed that if people could be inspired by religious leaders, they may begin a political movement that could influence positive social change (liberation theology)

Question 27

Liberation Theology

Answer 27

South America 60s and 70s.
Catholic priests developed the liberation theology movement as a response to the failure of the Vatican to help its followers with the poverty and exploitation that they faced.
Priests encouraged followers to enforce change upon their society, even to use violence when necessary, in order to overthrow the dictators that oppressed them.

Question 28

Evaluation of traditional Marxist view

Answer 28

pros- It recognises religion can be divisive and oppressive.
cons- Ignores positive aspects of religion that functionalists identify. Focuses on class oppression doesn’t consider religious patriarchy and oppression of women. Outdated religion only act as an instrument of oppression if people actually hold and practise religious beliefs, and religion has institutional power in society. Secular in countries religion may no longer be performing the ideological role Marxists suggest.

Question 29

Radical feminists

Answer 29

tend to see most religion as existing for the benefit of men & present they want to reshape religion all together by recapturing the centrally of women in religion of early times.
mary Daly- Christianity is a set of principle myths. She was a catholic herself but said earlier christian catholic church eliminate religion which showed female and male gods as power. Reduces the role of Mary magdulene who played a key role in the growth of christianity. in cathoclism women cannot be priests due to ‘original sin’ and sexual temptation. Christianity inherently patriarchal men are made ‘in the image of god’. primary role in the bible left from men most significant prophets are male. Important female figures (mary eve) reinforce patriarchy. Eve made form Addams ribs represents damage of female sexuality while Mary symbolizes virtues of motherhood.

Question 30

liberal feminists

Answer 30

Likely to aim for more equality for women within existing religion by removing obsiticals that prevent them from taking on positions of authority like priests religious teachers & leader.
Simone Beauvoir- men use religion to control & oppress women. religion is a way of compensating women for their second class status. deceives women into thinking they are equal to men in reality they are disadvantaged as the ‘second sex’ gives women faulse belief they will be compensated for their suffering on earth by equality in heaven. supposed by womens subordination across a range of world religions (menstruation pregnancy & childbirth seen as ‘polluting’ religious rituals. In Islam women arnt allowed to touch the quran in Hinduism women cannot approach family shrines in these times. Places of worship segregated women behind screens men in the centural space. Participle of women restricted cant preach lead prayer or read from scared texts)

Question 31

Marxist feminists

Answer 31

Emphasized the marsist view that religion acts as the opium of the people focusing on the way religion acts as a means of compensatory women particularly WC women for their double exploration thorough their status as being both wc and women

Question 32

Feminists Religious beliefs
Nawal EL Sadawi (1980)

Answer 32

-religious systems are not patriarchal or responsible for the oppression of women.
-Cultures of early Arab society’s were patriarchal as men were able to use their power to occupy positions of influence within Islam.
-Cultural power enabled male religious thinkers to impose patriarchal ideas on their interoperation of religious texts.
-Quran both men & women can be stoned to death for adultery but unlikely for men as Arab cultures permits men to have several wife’s & allows men to divorce their wives.
-Female circmsis is not a product of islam itself Qur’an gives no reason for this practices. No practiced in all Islamic societies done in same no- islamic African countries product or culture rather tan os Islam.

Question 33

How feminists see religion as oppressive to women

Answer 33

-In som eIslamic societies (Soudia Arabia, Iran, Afganistan) the government are compulsory. Buruhill (2001) describes the burqu as a ‘mobile prison’
-Feminists often believe girls & women are not given a choice to dress in this way but pressured by parents, husbands, local muslim community to do so
-Believe any sudden change in Western Forms of dressing to Islamic modes of clothing may be a sing of the adaptation of extreme fundamentalists beliefs & practices

Question 34

How feminists see religion as Libarating to women

Answer 34

-Woodhead used the example of the hijab or veil by many Muslim women as an example of ‘religious form of feminism’
-While western feminists tend to see it as a symbol of oppression to the wearer it may be a means of liberation
-According to Sophie Gilliat- Ray (2010) some young british women choose to wear the hijab in order to gain parental approval to entre futher education & especially employment
-Hijab is a symbol of liberation the allows them to entre the public sphere without being condemned as immodest.

Question 35

Criticism of feminism

Answer 35

-Not all religions are appresive to women. Kaur- Singh (1994) observes that Sikh Guras have constantly supported equal rights for women in Indian societies
-Some religions have become more liberal & progressive- COFE appointed its first female UK bishop in 2015
-There is some evidence that some of the NRNS that have appeared since the 60s may be more female friendly
-Strong feminist elements in contemporary paganism in which the most important God is Gaia the Earth Goddess

Question 36

Linda Woohead (2009)

Answer 36

-criticized feminists explanations that simply equate religion with patriarchy and the oppression of women.
-She accepted that much traditional religious is patriarchal she emphasised that is is not true religion
-she argues that there are ‘religious forms of feminism’ ways in which women use religion to gain greater freedom & respect

Question 37

Religion & social change

Answer 37

Conservative force: something which maintains and sustains society as it is and makes it resistant to challenge
Social change: the process of society and its institutions laws and norms shifting so that social roles & interactions change.
Social conflict: a state within society whereby individuals & groups are unable to cohere with each other

Question 38

Religion is seen as a conservative force in 2 sences

Answer 38

it is often seen as conservative in the sence of being “traditional’ benefiting traditional customs institutions moral views roles. In other words it uphold traditional beliefs about ho society should be organised
It is conservative because it functions to conserve or preserve things as they are. It stabilities society & maintains the status.

Question 39

religion as a conservative force

Answer 39

most religions have traditional conservative beliefs about moral issues & most of them oppose changes that would allow individuals more freedom in personal & sexual matters. Catholic church forbids divorce, abortion, artificial contraceptives. Oppose gay marriage & condemns home sexual behaviour

Most religions uphold ‘family values’ & often favour a traditional patriarchal domestic division of labour. Men should be head of the house hold embebed in traditional marriage ceremonies. The bride vows ‘love honor and obey’ the man ‘‘love and honour

Question 40

Functionalist perspective
Religion & consensus

Answer 40

Functionalist see religion as a conservative force bacise it functions to maintain social stability & prevents society from disintegrating. For example it promotes social solidarity by creating value consensus, thus reducing the likely hood of society collapsing through individuals pursuing their own selfish interests at the expense of others

Question 41

The traditional Marxist perspective
Religion & capitalism

Answer 41

Marx see religion as a conservative that prevents social change by legitimising or descising exploration & inequality. It creates false consciousness in the working class & prevents revolution thereby maintaining the consciousness in the working class & prevents revolution there by maintaining the stability of capitalist society
They also control church, education, media. Religion operates as an ideological weapon used by the ruling class to justify the poor as something inevitable & god-given

Question 42

The feminist perspective
religion & patriarchy

Answer 42

Feminists see religion as a conservative force because it acts as an ideology that legitimised patriarchy power and maintains woman’s subordination in the family & wider society

Question 43

Weber
The Protestant ethic & the spirit of capitalism

Answer 43

Calvinism (form of Protestantism) found by John Celvin during the reform. Helped to being about major social change. Specifically modern capitalism in Northern Europe in the 16th & 17th century. Argued modern capitalism based on the rational pursuit for its own sake rather for consumption he calls this this spirit of capitalism.

Question 44

Calvinism Belife

Answer 44

-characterised by austerity, self- denial, strong- disipline to maintain predestination
-God has decide which souls will be saved before birth this can not be changed regardless of what individuals do or there beliefs (Divine transience)
-god is beyond this world not human can know his will (other that what he choose to revel in the bible)
-this & the church & its priests left calvinists to feel “an unpredictable inner loneliness”
-This and predestination created what Weber calls a salvation panic in them (did not know if the had been saved and could not do anything to change it )

Question 45

Weber coined the phrase Asceticism which means

Answer 45

Refers to absence self disipline & self denial. For example monk leads an ascetic existence refraining from luxury, wearing simple clothes avoiding ecces in order to devote themselves to God.

Question 46

Webers conclusion

Answer 46

-calvinism provides the rationality & religious ideologies & ethics which encouraged the development of capitalism industry first in the Protestant countries of Europe
-Religion could play an important part in social change including economic change this contrasts with functionalist & Marxist theories that emphasis the conservative role of religion

Question 47

Calvinism believed hard work lead to 2 consequences

Answer 47

1. Wealth & success have a phycological function allowed the to cope with salvation panic. As they grew wealthier believed it was a sing God will save them. Country to there beliefs they cannot know Gods will
   2.Driven by there work ethic they have systematical & methodically accumulation of wealth by the most efficient & rational means. Did not have luxuries so revisited into businesses allowing it ti bigger. Weber saw this as modern capitalism accumulation of more & more money

Question 48

Hinduism & Confucianism

Answer 48

Hinduism in Ancient India: An ascetic religion that encouraged renouncing the material world, focusing instead on spiritual pursuits. Directed followers’ concerns away from materialism.
Confucianism in Ancient China: A this-worldly religion that encouraged focus on the material world, but was non-ascetic, lacking the discipline associated with renunciation.
Contrast with Calvinism: Weber argued Calvinism was unique because it combined asceticism (self-discipline and renunciation) with a this-worldly focus, directing followers toward disciplined work and material success, which helped drive the development of modern capitalism.

Question 49

Evaluation Weber

Answer 49

-Webers work described as a debate with Marx’s ghost. Marx saw economy or material factors as the driving force of social change whereby weber argues this alone wasn’t enough. factors such as Cultural, beliefs & values of calvinism brought around capitalism
-Marxism said that he overestimated the role of ideas and underestimated economic factors in being capitalism into being. He argues that in fact capitalism preceded rather than followed Calvinism
-Capitalism did not develop in every country where there was calvinism. Marshall said this was due to a lack of investment capital & skilled labour supporting Weber that both material &cultural factors were needed for capitalism to emerge