Beliefs in society - paper 2 Mock Flashcards
Substantive Definitions
Focus on the content of religious belief, such as belief in God or the supernatural. To be a religion, a set of beliefs must include belief in God or the supernatural.
Weber defines religion as belief in a supernatural power that is above nature and cannot be explained scientifically. Substantive definitions are exclusive. They draw a clear line between religious and non-religious beliefs.
Substantive Definitions evaluation
+They conform to a widespread view of religion as belief in God.
-Dont see that beliefs and practices that perform similar functions to religion but do not believe in God as a religion.
-Also accused of Western bias as they exclude religions like Buddhism.
Functional definitions
Define religion in terms of the social or psychological functions it performs for individuals or society. Durkheim defines religion by the contribution it makes to social integration, rather than any specific belief in God or the supernatural. Yinger (a functionalist) says that religion answers ‘ultimate questions’ about the meaning of life and what happens when we die for people.
Functional definitions evaluation
+inclusive allowing us to include a wide range of beliefs & practices that perform functions such as integration.
+There is no bias against non-Western religions such as Buddhism as they do not specify belief in God.
-However, just because an institution helps integrate individuals, does not make it a religion. Collective chanting at a football match might give individuals a sense of integration doesn’t mean it is a religion.
Constructionist definitions
A interpretive approach that focuses on how members of society themselves define religion. They argue its not possible to produce a single universal definition of religion since in reality different individuals & groups mean very different things by ‘religion’. They are interested in how definitions pf religion are constructed, challenged and fought over. Definition of religion can be constructed and are influenced by who has power to define the situation
Constructionist definitions evaluation
+they do not assume that religion always involves a belief in God, or it performs similar functions for everyone in all societies.
+there approach allows them to get close to the meaning people themselves give to religion
-makes it impossible to generalise about the nature of religion since people may have widely differing views about what counts as religion
Functionalist theory of religion.
functions of religion
society is a system of interrelated functional parts. Each institution within society performs certain functions. Religion is an institution that has many functions.
Provides guides for how we act, brings people together, emotional support, provides security, creates social harmony
Durkhim (1915)
-Institutions play the main part in creating and maintaining the value consensus, order and solidarity of a society.
-He accepted that religion plays a very important role within society
-Not interested in the belief in Gods or spirits but in the distinction between the sacred and the profane.
Sacred- thing that inspire feeling of awe, fear and wonder and are supported by taboos and professions. Profane- things with no special significants, things that are ordinary an madane
Durkhim (1915)
Collectivism
-religions have rituals or practices to show the importance of the sacred they are collective preferred by a social group.
-sacred thing provoke powerful feelings in believers as represent something of great power.
-Durkheim belief this can only be society itself since society is the only thing powerful enough to coma such feelings.
-when people workship the sacred symbol they are worshipping society
-Sacred symbols vary from religion to religion but they all preform the essential function or uniting believer into a signal moral community
Durkhim (1915)
Totemism- study of Arunta in Australia
-Studied Astralian aboriginal clans to see religion in its basic form
-Arunt aboriginal cals would come together to preform rituals involving worship of a sacred totem
-the totem is the clans emblem like and animal or plant that symbolises the clans origin and identity
-the shared ritual serve to reinforce the groups solidarity and sence of beloning
-when they worship the totem they worship society even though they are unaware of this
-The totem inspires feelings of awe because it represents the power of the group in which the individual is utterly dependant
Durkhim (1915)
The collective conscience
-The sacred symbols represent society’s collective consensus. (shared norms, values, beliefs and knowledge that makes social life and actions between individuals integration)
-regular shared rituals reinforce the collective consensus and maintain social integration
-participating in shared rituals binds individuals together, reminding them that they are part of a single moral community to which they owe their loyalty
-religion performs an important function for the individual by making us feel a part of something greater -religion re-integrates and strengthens us to face lifes trials and motivates us to overcome obstacles
Durkhim (1915)
Cognitive functions of religion
-religion is the origin of the concepts and categories need for reasoning, understanding the world and communicating
-religion provides basic categories such as time, space and creation
-Durkheim say religion is the origin of human through, reasoning and science
Evaluation of Durkhim (1915)
criticism
-Worsely (1956) no sharp division between the sacred and the profane and different clans share the same totem
-postmodernists such as Mestrivie (2011) argues the idea cannot be applied to contemporary society increasing diversity has fragmented the collective consensus. There is no longer a shared value system for religion to reinforce
-His theory works on a small scale society with a single religion. hard to appy to societies where there are multiple religious communities may cause conflict
Functionalist theory
Malinowski
Psychological function- religion promotes solidarity by preforming phycological functions helps people cope with emotional distress. if un-delt with this distress would break down the social solidarity.
Rituals provide psychological comfort and social cohesion in terms of uncertainty or anxiety. Death is the key reason why religion exists: belief in immorality helps to cope with loss, funeral rituals helps cope with mourning, deaths at sea could be interpreted as the will of the Gods which minimised mourning
All of this provides protection against society ending up in disorder
Malinowski
2 functions religion preforms studied Turbriand island of the wester pacific
- where the outcome is important but controllable and uncertain. Lagoon fishing (safe and uses predctable methods of poising. no ritual needed) Ocean fishing (dangerous & uncertain. Canoe Magic performed rituals to ensure safety. Gives people a sense of control and confidence to undertake hazardous tasks ‘God of the Gaps’ – fills the gaps in human control)
- At times of life crisis (death, birth, puberty, marriage)
religion helps to minimise disruption to solidarity in social groups. Funeral rituals reinforce a sense of solidarity among survivors. Life after death gives a sense of comfort.
Parson
Legitimacy of society’s central values
Primary source of meaning
Religion helps individuals cope with unforeseen events, uncomfortable outcomes and creates and legitimise society’s central values.
Religion creates and legitimises society’s basic norms & values by making them scared
provide a source of meaning. answers ultimate questions on events that other wise defy our sence of justice and make our lifes seem meaningless which would lead to undermining our commitment to societies vales. Helps people to adjust to events or circumstances and help maintain stability
Bellah
Civil religion
-looked at how religion unified society in a multi-faith society
-society has an overreaching civil religion (belief system that attaches acred qualities to society itself) Civil religion integrates society in a way that churches and denominations cannot
-Americal civil religion involves loyalty to the nation-state and a belief in god both are being true to America. Expressed in symbols and beliefs such as pledge of allegiance to the flag
-Not a specific Jewish, Catholic, Protestant God. But an ‘American’ God. Sacralises the American way of life blinds togther Americans from many different ethnic and religious backgrounds
Functionals alternative
-non-religious belifes and practices that preform functions similar to these of originated religion e.g. reinforce share values monitor social cohesion.
-Although American Civil religion involves a God dosent have to be the case other belief system provide the same function
-problem with functional alternative is that it ignores what makes religion distinctive and different
Evaluation of functionalism
+Emphasises the social nature or religion & the positive function it preforms
+Civil religion overcomes the problem to some extent by arguing that societies may still have an overarching belief system shared by all
-But is this religion especially if its not based on a belife of supernatural
-Neglects negative aspect such as religion as a source of oppression of the poor woman
-Ignores religion of division and conflict
Marx view on religion
Ideology
-Ideology is a belief system that distorts peoples perception of realisty in ways that serve the ruling class. Argues the class that controls economic production also control church, education & media. Religion operates as an ideological weapon used by the ruling class to justify the poor as something inevitable and god-given
Marx view on religion
Product on alienation
-alienation involves becoming separated fro or losing control over something that one has produced or created. It exists in all class societies more extreme under capitalism. Workers are alienated because they do not own what they produce and have no control over the production process and thus no freedom to express their creativity. Bad in factories where workers endlessly repeat the same task loosing all meaning or skill. in dehumanizing conditions exploited turn to religion as a form of consolation.
how religious text consolidate marxist ideas
‘is the opium of the people’- religion acts as an opien to dules the pain. But like opium religion masks the underlying problem of exploration not treat it.
‘religion as a spiritual gin (lenin)’ religion is an intoxicat doled out to the masses by the RC to confuse them and keep them in there place. create a mystical fog that obscure reality.
Religion miss leads the poor into believe suffering is virtous & will favor them in the after life ‘It is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than a rich man to entre the kingdom of heaven.’ Creates fails class consciousness prevents them from challenging there cituaction.
legitimize the power of the privileged dominate class by making there position seem divinely ordained. ‘the divine right of kings’ belief the king is gold representative on earth and is owed total obedience. Disobedient is not just illegal but sinful challenging gods authority.
Hindu Caste System support marxist views- religions justify inequality
Hindu’s believe they are born into their caste (similar to social class) based on their actions in previous life. If born into a lower caste, they are being punished by the gods, those born into top castes are being rewarded
Hindus in lower castes are encouraged not to question their current exploitation in the hope that when they are reincarnated they will be rewarded in the next life
Bloch (1959)- Neo-Marxism
Religion had a ‘dual character’ as it had both a positive and negative effect on social change.
In many ways religion acted as a conservative force, however it could also be seen as a ‘principle of hope’ that could inspire the proletariat to revolt in the most extreme circumstances.
Gramsci- Neo-Marxism
Although the church played its part in maintaining the cultural hegemony (dominant set of beliefs) that benefitted the RC, it could also produce its own ideas that could inspire social change.
This would often occur if clergy members from the lower parts of the church hierarchy felt that they could make a difference in their community, rather than persisting with the official messages of the church.
This individual autonomy could, in some circumstances, override the RC ideology that was promoted by the religion as a whole
Maduro (1982)- Neo-Marxism
Agreed with Gramsci’s ideas argued in some countries where protests were banned by dictatorships, the church could be the only safe outlet of frustration for the proletariat.
Religious leaders could be charismatic figures that inspire congregations to achieve real social change. He argues they would be led by their conscience rather than sticking to the message of the religion.
Religious leaders would be seen as untouchable by the oppressive governments because they were seen as sacred by their followers. If they came to any harm, an
uncontrollable uprising could occur.
He believed that if people could be inspired by religious leaders, they may begin a political movement that could influence positive social change (liberation theology)
Liberation Theology
South America 60s and 70s.
Catholic priests developed the liberation theology movement as a response to the failure of the Vatican to help its followers with the poverty and exploitation that they faced.
Priests encouraged followers to enforce change upon their society, even to use violence when necessary, in order to overthrow the dictators that oppressed them.
