Beliefs in society Flashcards
1
Q
theism
A
the belief in a god or gods.
monotheism - the belief in one god (christianity)
polytheism - the belief in multiple gods (hinduism)
2
Q
animism
A
Belief in spiritual beings or souls in natural objects that can positively or negatively impact the human or natural world
example - Bwa believes that spirits inhabit the masks that they wear.
3
Q
totenism
A
the belief in a sacred symbol that gains significance and is believed to protect the people it represents
example - Aborigines believe that plants and animals are sacred to their society.
4
Q
new age movements
A
a spiritual belief system but that has limited religious element, and it focuses on self-development and fulfilment rather than a devotion to a higher power.
example - yoga focuses on self-development and fulfilment.
5
Q
substantive definition
A
religion is the belief in a supernatural power that is unable to be scientifically explained
6
Q
functional definition
A
religion is defined by the social or psychological functions that it performs for society.
7
Q
social constructionist definition
A
Diversity of religious beliefs means there is not one definitive definition of what religion is.
8
Q
open belief system
A
a belief system that is flexible, receptive to new ideas, and open to change.
9
Q
closed belief system
A
a set of beliefs that is resistant to change or outside influence.
10
Q
monopoly of the truth
A
says that people’s viewpoints and religions are wrong unless there is proof.
shows that religion is a closed belief system
11
Q
secularisation
A
the decline in the importance of religion
12
Q
internal secularisation
A
when religions dilute their core beliefs in order to maintain their relevancy in the modern era.
13
Q
the enlightenment
A
a european movement in the mid 1600s-1700s, where there was a rise of reason and scientific processes that challenged absolute power of the monarchs and the church.
14
Q
what are the core principles of science?
A
- science is the pursuit of facts.
- it is objective
- studies the impact of cause and effect based on reliable data
15
Q
falsification
A
for something to be scientific, it must be possible for it to be proven false.
16
Q
functionalist view on religion
A
religion contributes to social solidarity and integration and adds value to people’s lives.
17
Q
marxist view on religion
A
religion plays a critical role in maintaining an unequal status quo, in which certain groups of people have radically more resources and power than other groups of people.
18
Q
caste system
A
a class structure that is determined by birth.
in some societies, the opportunities you have access to depend on the family you happened to be born into.
19
Q
neo-marxist view on religion
A
religion had a dual character and could act as a conservative force but it was also possible for it to challenge the status quo and encourage social change
20
Q
feminist view on religion
A
religion acts as a conservative force, maintaining the status quo.
For feminists, that status quo is a patriarchal society.
21
Q
calvinism
A
a major branch of Protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice set down by John Calvin and various other Reformation-era theologians
22
Q
postmodernist view on religion
A
traditional religions have lost significance in society and therefore lack the ability to encourage both social stability or bring about social change.
23
Q
reflexivity
A
we are continuously reevaluating our ideas and theories and that everything is up to challenge
24
Q
disembedding
A
we no longer need face to face interaction because society has become less embedded in religious organisations
25
cultural amnesia
the loss of religion being passed down from one generation to another.
instead, parents are allowing their children to choose their own belief systems.
26
pick and mix culture
when people select different elements of each religion to create their own version of a belief system that is most beneficial to them.
27
spiritual shopping
throughout peoples' lifetimes, they try out different religions to see what one fits them the most.
28
conservative force
preventing social change and reinforcing traditional values
29
force for social change
encourages social change and challenging traditional values.
30
church
- have a multilayered hierarchy and a professional clergy.
- large, worldwide memberships
- long lifespans (centuries)
- few demands for members
EXAMPLE - roman catholics
31
denomination
- a sect that has been successful enough to evolve into a larger movement.
- relatively large membership
- relies on the active involvement of their members.
EXAMPLE -quakers
32
sect
- revolves around a charismatic leader who claims to have been chosen by a supernatural power.
- small memberships
- short lifespan
- demands total dedication from their followers
EXAMPLE - moonies
33
cult
- has a loose structure and no professional clergy
- small membership
- lifespan varies with market demand
- rarely demands strong commitments
EXAMPLE - scientology
34
new religious movements
used to describe denominations, sects and cults
35
world affirming movements
(cults)
They accept the world in its current state and do not seek societal change. They seek to offer their members spiritual enrichment and make few demands on their members.
36
world accommodating movements
(denominations)
They are not happy with the current state of the world, but they make the most of their situation. They focus on improving the lives of their followers while still conforming to societal norms.
37
world rejecting movements
(sects)
They demand social change and do not agree with the current state of the world. They have a clear understanding of a god and focus on the literal truth of the sacred text (they have a fundamentalist nature).
38
religious market theory
rather than being in a decline in all religions, there has been a growth in new religious movements and this has led to the decline in the followers of traditional religions.
39
reasons why sects are short lived
1. the movement loses momentum after the leader dies
2. the children of sect members do not have the same intensity of beliefs and so the movement dies out in the second generation
3. the movement becomes successful and evolves into a denomination by developing a professional clergy
4. the movement begins to compromise with the outside world and dilutes its beliefs.=[
40
religiosity
strong religious feelings or beliefs
41
statistics on gender and religiosity
in 2005, 57% of church attenders were female
42
gender role socialisation
Women feel closer to god because they are involved in the creation of life (childbirth) and death (caring for elderly relatives).
43
wanting to be a good mother
The main reason women want to be religious is because they want to be a good role model for their children.
Found that women claim that they are christian even though they are not necessarily religious, due to wanting to be a good role model and to fit in with the majority.
44
new religious movements for women
the rise in women participating in NRMs were due to organismic deprivation, ethical deprivation and social/economic deprivation.
45
the pentecostal paradox
women are still drawn and attracted to religious movements, despite the religions being patriarchal
46
statistics of ethnicity and religion
black people are twice as likely to attend church than white people.
ethnic minorities are more likely to see their religion as important and to attend a place of worship every week.
majority of atheists are white.
47
cultural defence
religion offers support and a sense of cultural identity for ethnic minorities and can be a basis for community solidarity
48
cultural transition
ethnic minorities may use religion as a form of cultural transition to help them assimilate into society.
49
homogenous
the idea that in a social setting, people all share the same cultural, ethnic, religious and linguistic backgrounds.
(all the same)
50
statistics on younger people and religion
74% left religion between the age of 10 and 20
87% of 10-14 claimed that church didn't relate to their modern lives and so avoided attending
51
statistics on older people and religion
the median age for christian people was between 45 and 51
average age of christians were aged 51
52
the collapse of religious socialisation for younger people
young people are less religious because it is unlikely for parents to pass on their religions to their children - leads to less religion because each parent has a different belief
53
increasing individuation for younger people
religion has become more of a personal choice and so young people feel less obliged to affiliate themselves with religion compared to previous generations
54
the ageing effect
older people are more religious because they are nearing the end of their life and so they are attempting to seek forgiveness for their past sins
55
the generational effect
older people are more religious because they were brought up in an insecure society due to poverty and world wars
56
statistics on social class and religiosity
62% of church attenders were middle class
57
church attendance for measuring secularisation
40% of the population attended church in 1851, compared to 15% in 1960.
58
census data for measuring secularisation
2001 census data showed that 72% of the population claimed to be christian, compared to 59% in 2011
59
bogus baptisms
atheist parents have their children baptised for them to enrol in high achieving faith schools.
60
desacralisation
as science becomes more of a dominant belief system, the public no longer believe in the sacred qualities of religion due to the lack of evidence to support their claims.
61
structural differentiation
the church no longer performs its traditional functions of socialisation and social solidarity due to the rise of other institutions such as the government and the education system.
62
fundamentalism
the belief in the literal interpretation of a religious text.
they have a world-rejecting attitude
they use modern technology to promote their messages and attempt to shock people through extreme views or acts of terrorism
63
benny hinn
claimed to have seen god and started a group
64
secularisation in US compared to UK
40% of americans claim to visit church every sunday compared to 15% in the UK.
US is less secular because religion provides them with a justification for their poverty, which is needed more in the US due to their lack of welfare state
65
western fundamentalist groups
(christian)
they react to changes within society such as secularisation, and attempt to battle with their communities to bring back traditional values
EXAMPLE - jehovah's witness
66
third world fundamentalist groups
(islamic)
they react to external influences that attempt to erode their way of life through secular and liberal views
EXAMPLE - al qaeda
67
how has globalisation impacted the growth of religious fundamentalism?
there are now new global methods that can be used to carry out their violent actions.
e.g. 9/11 - were able to use planes.
there is a rapid promotion of cosmopolitan values where individuals with a conservative value feel threatened by a liberal world view
68
ultra-nationalism
generating a worship of indian culture rather than just a focus on the gods
69
weber (science and religion)
Religion requires the belief in a supernatural power that cannot be scientifically explained.
70
berger (science and religion)
Religion acts as a sacred canopy for its believers, which means that it provides a sense of comfort and answers the ‘big questions’ about the uncertainties of life.
71
aldridge (science and religion)
For its followers Scientology is a religion, even though several governments have denied it the legal status of being a religion (such as in Germany)
72
evans-pritchard (science and religion)
Studied the Azande people of Sudan, and found that individuals believed they had no control over the witchcraft that existed in their stomachs, and they were not allowed to question it.
Supports the view that religion is a closed belief system.
73
polyani (science and religion)
Religions have specific tendencies to protect themselves from challenge;
1. Denial of legitimacy
2. Subsidiary explanations
Supports the view that religion is a closed belief system.
74
popper (science and religion)
Science is an open belief system because it can be challenged and it is built upon the idea of falsification.
75
kuhn (science and religion)
Science is a closed belief system because it has to work within paradigms that define it and those who go outside of these tend to be ridiculed.
76
merton (science and religion)
Science is more of an open belief system than religion, and that it is shaped by four specific norms;
1. Communism: scientific knowledge should be shared with the community and should not be kept private.
2. Universalism: all scientists are regarded as equals, so it should be their work that is challenged and not them personally.
3. Disinterestedness: scientists should be committed to truth and publish their findings honestly without bias or fraud.
4. Organised Scepticism: all knowledge within science should be challenged and scrutiny should be encouraged.
77
durkheim (functionalist)
Religion creates social solidarity and that the main purpose of religion was to clearly differentiate between things that were sacred and profane within our society.
Community worship provides people with a collective conscience, which is a shared understanding of the norms and values that promote a sense of belonging to society.
78
parsons (functionalist)
Religion helps us to cope with unforeseen events and uncontrollable outcomes. He believes that religion acts as an agent of secondary socialisation, which helps to reinforce the value consensus that underpins social order.
79
malinowski (functionalist)
Religion also provides society with psychological functions. Believes that religion creates ‘rites of passage’ (funerals) to help believers deal with anxiety and grief, so they can return to normality as soon as possible.
Studied the Trobriand Islands in Papua New Guinea and found that before kula (a ritual where they would exchange seashells with neighbouring islands) the islanders would pray to their gods before the journey due to the uncertainty of their loved one’s survival.
80
bellah (functionalist)
Americanism is a civil religion in America.
Argues that the USA has its own civil religion known as 'Americanism' that combines religion and national values.
American society is increasingly diverse and 'americanism' as a civil religion has developed in order to avoid conflict and to promote integration, social solidarity and stability in American Society.
God represents America, which is consequently viewed as 'sacred'.
81
marx (marxist)
Called religion the opium of the masses, which distorts reality and numbs the pain of the proletariat's oppression.
Religion creates false class consciousness - a form of social control that allows for the proletariat to be exploited by creating mistaken beliefs.
82
engels (marxist)
Both religion and socialism provided benefits for the working class, however religion provides these benefits in the afterlife, and socialism provides these benefits in this life.
83
lenin (marxist)
Religion is a ‘spiritual gin’ - an intoxicant given to the masses by the ruling class to confuse them and keep them in their place.
84
bloch (neo-marxist)
Religion has a ‘dual character’ as it can act as a conservative force, but could also be seen as a ‘principle of hope’ that can inspire the proletariat to revolt.
85
gramsci (neo-marxist)
Religion helps to maintain cultural hegemony that benefits the ruling class, but it also produces its own ideas that allow social change to take place.
86
armstrong (feminist)
Coined the term ‘stained glass ceiling’ - women of the church are not able to progress to the top of the hierarchy, and until recently, they were not allowed to become bishops.
Blames religion itself and argues that it is patriarchal and negative towards women.
87
el saadawi (feminist)
Suggests that Islam itself is not patriarchal, but that it is the male domination of Arab cultural institutions that has led to the maintenance of gender inequality. This is because the men use their cultural power to dominate the interpretations of texts in favour of men.
Blames the people who run the religion for the patriarchy within the religion.
88
weber's perspective on religion
Religion can help to bring about social change as well as encourage social stability.
Calvinists worked hard due to not knowing whether they had been chosen by god to go to heaven. They led an ascetic (simple) life to show their respect to god, and this led to profit accumulation.
89
lyon (postmodernist)
‘Spiritual shoppers’ - throughout a person’s lifetime, they will try out different religions to find the one that works best for them.
Jesus in Disneyland shows that religion has changed because we have become spiritual shoppers, and religious leaders are now turning to the media to publicise their beliefs.
90
bruce's perspective on religion
91
wallis (religious organisations)
Coined the term ‘New Religious Movements’ to describe denominations, sects and cults.
Categorised these movements into three different groups;
World-affirming (cults) - They accept the world in its current state and do not seek societal change. They seek to offer their members spiritual enrichment and make few demands on their members.
World-accommodating (denominations) - They are not happy with the current state of the world, but they make the most of their situation. They focus on improving the lives of their followers while still conforming to societal norms.
World-rejecting (sects) - They demand social change and do not agree with the current state of the world. They have a clear understanding of a god and focus on the literal truth of the sacred text (they have a fundamentalist nature).
92
weber (religious organisations)
NRMs are increasing because they attract individuals who feel marginalised from a community. NRMs provide the poor and the powerless with an explanation for their situation and gives them hope for rewards in the afterlife.
93
barker (religious organisations)
Middle class children feel neglected by their career-oriented parents and suffer from relative deprivation. NRMs provide an alternative family for the individual due to the strong sense of community that they create.
Studied the Moonies and concluded that the members chose to join the group rather than being brainwashed into joining.
Contradicts the idea that everyone who joins these groups are forced and tricked into joining.
94
wilson (religious organisations)
In times of social change, people feel a sense of confusion and anxiety, which has led to increased participation in NRMs as they appease the anxieties of these individuals.
95
stark and bainbridge (religious organisations)
Use the ‘secularisation cycle’ to explain why traditional religions are on the decline and NRMs are on the increase.
1. Secularisation - the decline in religious influence on society.
2. Innovation - the creation of new forms of religious organisation.
3. Religious revival - the resurgence of religion as a dominant belief system.
4. Religious decline - previously dominant religious organisations begin to lose their relevance.
96
heelas and woodhead (religious organisations)
Conducted the Kendal Project, where they studied the prevalence of regular church attendance and the popularity of NAMs.
Church attendance was at 7.9% - decrease from 1960s, whereas NAM attendance was 1.7% - increase since 1960s.
They used the yellow pages to predict that by 2025, NAM attendance would overtake the church attendance.
97
niebuhr (religious organisations)
Sects rarely last longer than a generation because;
- The movement loses momentum after a leader dies.
- The children of members do not have the same intensity of belief as their parents.
- The movement becomes successful and becomes a denomination.
- The movement compromises with the outside world and dilutes its beliefs.
98
walter and davie (gender and religiosity)
Women feel closer to god because they are involved in the creation of life (childbirth) and death (caring for elderly relatives).
99
day (gender and religiosity)
The main reason women want to be religious is because they want to be a good role model for their children.
Found that women claim that they are christian even though they are not necessarily religious, due to wanting to be a good role model and to fit in with the majority.
100
woodhead (gender and religiosity)
Criticises gender and religiosity - Argues that women are not homogenous and not all women have the same religiosity.
101
bruce (ethnicity and religiosity)
Ethnic minorities are likely to be religious due to cultural defence (using religion for a sense of cultural identity) and cultural transition (using religion to assimilate into british society).
102
modood (ethnicity and religiosity)
Criticises ethnicity and religiosity - Ethnic minorities are not homogenous. Religious participation declines as each generation exists longer within a community.
103
voas and crockett (age and religiosity)
Older people are more religious for two reasons:
The ageing effect - Older people are closer to the end of their life and so they turn to religion to seek forgiveness for their past sins.
The generational effect - Older peoples’ upbringing was less secure than today’s society due to world wars and poverty.
104
brierley (age and religiosity)
Found that 87% of 10-14 year olds said that church was boring and that the religious teachings no longer relate to their modern lives.
105
voas and watt (class and religiosity)
There are more middle class people attending churches, but for ulterior motives such as ensuring that their children are enrolled at the best faith schools.
106
weber (class and religiosity)
Religion attracts the working class who are deprived and marginalised because it provides an explanation for their poverty and a hope for rewards in the afterlife.
107
penman (secularisation)
Bogus baptisms - Many parents are having their children baptised, not because they are religious, but because they want their children to be enrolled at high-achieving faith schools.
108
stark and bainbridge (secularisation)
religious market theory - rather than being in a decline in all religions, there has been a growth in new religious movements and this has led to the decline in the followers of traditional religions.
109
weber (secularisation)
Rationalisation - The public do not believe in the sacred qualities of religion due to the lack of evidence to support their claims (process called desacralisation).
110
parsons (secularisation)
Structural differentiation - The church no longer performs the traditional functions for society, and other institutions (the government) now perform these functions more effectively.
111
sanderson (secularisation)
‘Hatching, matching and dispatching’ - christenings, weddings and funerals.
People are now abandoning the traditional services of the church and instead are pursuing civil alternatives that are secular in nature, such as humanist funerals.
112
davie (secularisation)
‘Believing without belonging’ - Agrees that religious belief has become more privatised, but this doesn’t mean there is a decline in personal religious belief.
Many people believe without feeling the need to belong to a particular religious movement.
Argues that ‘vicarious religion’ is now the norm - the active minority pray on the behalf od the wider community.
113
norris and inglehart (secularisation)
America is more religious because it has less welfare support than the UK, which means they are turning to religion as an alternative source of security.
114
hadaway (secularisation)
When questioned, 40% of Americans consistently stated that they were regular church attenders.
However, Hadaway conducted a study in Ohio and found that less than 40% of Americans visited church every sunday - shows that people claimed to attend church because it is the socially desirable answer.
115
giddens (secularisation)
Globalisation has triggered the rise in fundamentalism because of the rapid promotion of cosmopolitan values, which is when individuals with conservative values are feeling threatened by a liberal world-view.
116
bauman (secularisation)
The uncertainty caused by globalisation has led to a rise in fundamentalism, because some individuals struggle to cope with the absolute truth related to postmodernity, and so seek a source of truth in fundamentalism.
117
castells (secularisation)
Globalisation has led to two different responses;
1. A resistance identity - Turns to fundamentalism to protect their conservative values.
2. A project identity - The individual embraces change by engaging in NAMs.
118
huntington (secularisation)
Fundamentalism is caused by the clash of civilisations, such as Western and Islam.
Argues that this is the reason for the rise in religious fundamentalism in Islam, as Muslims attempt to fight against the dominance of Western Christian civilisation.
119
armstrong (secularisation)
Argued that religions were not inherently violent, but that they have resorted to violence when they feel threatened by modernity.
120
nanda (secularisation)
121
berger (secularisation)
