Beliefs

Question 1

Substantive definitions of religion

Answer 1

focus on the substance of religious belief like belief in god or supernatural. Weber- defines religion as belief in a superior power that is above nature. they are exclusive and draw clear line between religious and non-religious beliefs. leaves no room for beliefs and practices similar to religion but w no god. western based

Question 2

Functional definitions of religion

Answer 2

define it in terms of the social functions it performs for individuals or society. Durkheim- defines religion in terms of contribution it makes to social integration, rather than specific belief in god. they are inclusive, no bias, integration does not mean religion tho.

Question 3

Constructionist definitions of religion

Answer 3

interpretivist approach that focus on how members of society themselves define religion. not possible to produce a single universal definition. Aldridge- scientology is religion not recognised by gov. do not assume that religion always involves belief in god, impossible to generalise abt the nature of religion

Question 4

Criticisms of functionalist view on religion

Answer 4

neglects negative aspects like it being a source of oppression for the poor, ignores religion as a source of division

Question 5

Marxism- view on religion

Answer 5

sees religion as a feature of a class divided society

Question 6

Marxism- religion as an ideology

Answer 6

religion is ideological weapon used by ruling class to justify the suffering of the poor as god given. religion misleads poor to think they will be favoured in afterlife, creates false consciousness. Lenin- religion is spiritual gin to make people confused, RC use religion cynically to manipulate the masses. Makes ppl think their place is divinely ordained (divine right of kings)

Question 7

Marxism- religion and alienation

Answer 7

Marx sees religion as product of alienation. its the opium of the people- dulls pain of exploitation, masks underlying problem of exploitation. religion arises out of suffering and acts as consolation but does not deal w its cause

Question 8

Criticisms of marxist view of religion

Answer 8

ignores positive functions, alienation is unscientific , not effective ideology (many people not effected by religion)

Question 9

Feminism- evidence of patriarchy

Answer 9

organisations-male dominated, forbid female priests
places of worship-segregate the sexes, have to sit behind screens, participation limited
sacred texts-mainly abt male gods, anti-female stereotypes
laws and customs-less right to divorce and who they can marry

Question 10

Criticism of feminism and religion

Answer 10

Woodhead- not all religions are patriarchal, headscarf in islam is seen as liberation
powerful female figures in religion like mary and goddesses in hinduism. religion can be tool for women to become more powerful

Question 11

Religion as a conservative force

Answer 11

religions beliefs- trad beliefs about moral issues and opposes change, favour trad patriarchal division of labour
religions functions- functions to conserve things as they are, functionalists- it maintains social stability and prevent society from disintegrating, conservative force for patriarchy and capitalism

Question 12

Weber- key ideas

Answer 12

argues religious beliefs of calvinism (form of protestantism) helped bring about major social changes specifically the emergence of modern capitalism in northern europe in 16th and 17th century. modern capitalism different bc its based on pursuit of profit for own sake rather than consumption (the spirit of capitalism). spirit has elective affinity to calvinist beliefs

Question 13

Calvanist beliefs

Answer 13

predestination- god has prechosen whos going to heaven, people cannot change this
divine transcendence- god so far above this world that no one can claim to know his will- when combined with predest it created a salvation panic in calvinists as they did not know who would be saved
asceticism- abstinence and self discipline
idea of a vocation- calling to serve god. before calvinism this meant monastery (other-worldly asceticism), after it meant constant work in occupation (this-worldly asceticism), so they all led ascetic lives putting work first- coped with salvation panic, reinvested money into business producing more profit, bringing capitalism

Question 14

Weber and Hinduism and Confucianism

Answer 14

he views how other countries have had greater economic growth but no capitalism because no religion like calvinism
hinduism- ascetic but other worldly
confucianism- this worldly but not ascetic
need both for spirit of modern capitalism to emerge

Question 15

Criticisms of Weber

Answer 15

marxists- overestimates role of ideas and underestimates economic factors in bringing capitalism- preceded not followed calvanism
capitalism did not develop in every country w calvinists like scotland

Question 16

Religion and social protest: success through civil rights movement

Answer 16

50s & 60s to end racial segregation, started bc of rosa parks, 1964 segregation outlawed
Bruce- black clergy backbone, used churches as meeting place and sanctuary from threat of white violence, black clergy shamed white people to change to law by appealing to their shared christian values of equality
took the moral high ground, channelled dissent, acted as honest broker and mobilised public opinion
achieved its goals because the movement shared the same values as wider society and those in power, shamed people in power to put the principle of equality into place

Question 17

Religion and social protest: failure through the new christian right

Answer 17

politically and morally conservative, protestant fundamentalist movement, gained prominence in 60s bc of its opposition to liberalising of american society, aims were to take america back to god, loves trad family and roles, campaigns for teachings of creationism
made effective use of the media and networking like televangelism
unsuccessful bc wont cooperate w other religious groups, lacks widespread support, did not match ideals of american society

Question 18

Marxism and change- liberation theology

Answer 18

movement emerged in catholic church latin america in 1960s, has strong commitment to poor and opposition to military dictatorships at the time
set out to change society, priests helped poor establish base communities, helped them fight oppression at work under protection of the church
oscar romero- liberated el salvador poor people, spoke against state, protested for the, martyr got assassinated

Question 19

Gramsci- religion and hegemony

Answer 19

interested in how ruling class maintain control over society through ideas, hegemony to refer to how RC use religion to maintain control, when hegemony established ruling class rely on popular consent to their rule, never guaranteed as WC can make alternate vision of how society should be- counter hegemony
also sees religion as having dual character

Question 20

Marxism and change- Ernst Bloch

Answer 20

sees religion as having dual character, argued for a view of religion that sees both the positive and negative influence on social change, accepts it inhibits change but can inspire protest, religion is an expression of ‘principle of hope’- our dreams of a better life contains utopia, can deceive people with promises of rewards in heaven but they may also help ppl see what needs to be changed in the world

Question 21

Patterns of secularisation in Britain

Answer 21

Wilson- western societies experiencing secularisation, church attendance gone from 10% in 60s to 4% in 2020, under 0.7m go to church in 2020, large church organisations gone down in popularity,
1983-2018, christians fell by 40%, no religion rose to half the pop

Question 22

Explanations of secularisation- Rationalisation

Answer 22

refers to the process by which rational ways of thinking have replaced religious ones, Weber- argued the protestant reformation by martin luther started process of rationalisation in the west, replaced religious worldview with scientific thinking
started disenchantment of the world
Bruce- growth of technology replaced religious reasoning

Question 23

Explanations of secularisation- Structural differentiation

Answer 23

Parsons- process of specialisation that occurs with the development of industrial society, separate specialised institutions are now performed by specific functions, parsons sees this as happening to religion, functions are transferred to other institutions and is disconnected from wider society
Bruce- its become privatised, happens in peoples home and in private, personal choice

Question 24

Explanations of secularisation- Social and Cultural diversity

Answer 24

Wilson- religion lost its basis in local communities so lost its hold over people
Bruce- industrialisation undermines consensus of religious beliefs that holds rural communities together, more diversity leads to less stable religious beliefs

Question 25

Explanations of secularisation- Religious diversity

Answer 25

Berger- many types of faith, no competition and everyone lived under sacred canopy shared by all, no longer a thing so crisis of credibility comes and diversity undermines plausability structure which is the reasons ppl find it believable, people question and religion erodes

Question 26

Explanations of secularisation- Cultural defence and transition

Answer 26

Defence- religion provides focal point for the defence of national, ethnic identity in a struggle against an external force
Transition- religion provides support for ethnic groups like migrants to a diff country
Bruce argues religion survives here bc it is focus for group identity, they do not disprove secularisation but show it will survive if performs other functions

Question 27

Secularisation in America

Answer 27

Wilson- america secular bc religion is superficial
declining church attendance- Hadaway: people over exaggerate how much they go to church, 83% higher than estimates, 1996 they exaggerated by 101%
Secularisation from within- emphasis on trad religion has declined and religion become a form of therapy, religion popular bc its less religious
Religious diversity- many people dont believe christianity is the main religion

Question 28

Criticisms of secularisation theory

Answer 28

not declining but changing
onesided, does not look at new religions
church attendance ignores people who believe but dont attend
not universal
religious diversity increases choice instead

Question 29

Obligation to consumption

Answer 29

Davie- people have choice in religion and people attend church bc they want to, religion not declining but changing to more privatised
trend towards vicarious religion- religion practised by an active minority for the majority who experience it second hand
spiritual health service- people use churches when they need to
people remain attached to church as institution even if they do not normally go
multiple modernities and countries have diff patterns of religion

Question 30

Spiritual shopping

Answer 30

Hervieu-Leger- religion no longer handed down to children, trad religion declined but individual consumerism has replaced collective tradition and people have choice bc they are consumers of religion, religion individualised and ppl pick their own beliefs, two new religious types emerging
convert- join groups that offer strong sense of belonging
pilgrims- follow path for self discovery
religion still has influence on societys values

Question 31

Postmodern religion

Answer 31

Lyon- globalisation made religion become disembedded as media takes it out of physical churches and moves them to a diff place, technology changed how religion can be consumed- televangelism and so has become deinstitutionalised
new religions coming uo instead
Berger- loss of faith in meta narratives like trad religion so it weakens as people no longer feel obliged

Question 32

Kendal Project

Answer 32

Heelas and woodhead, study if trad religion has declined and if spirituality is making up for it, two groups- holistic milieu and congregational domain, 7.9% of pop attended church, 1.6% spiritual activities, trad churches losing support but evangelical holding their own, spirituality low but growing

Question 33

Religious market theory

Answer 33

Stark and Bainbridge- critical of secularisation as its eurocentric, religion attractive bc it compensated for lack of rewards, they see cycle where religion declines revives and renews
demand for religion increases when there is multiple to choose from, when theres one church w no competition (religious monopoly) there is decline, religion thrives in us bc theres never been a religious monopoly but in europe theres more choice so more decline

Question 34

Criticisms of religious market theory

Answer 34

Bruce- stats show diversity has joined with religious decline
assumes some people are naturally religious and does not explain why people make the choices they do
misrepresents secularisation theory

Question 35

Secularisation and security

Answer 35

Norris and Inglehart- reject RMT bc it only applies to america
existential security theory- religion grants security, poor people richer bc they need smthing to give them hope- demand for religion not constant but varies between societies, america religious bc it is the most unequal of rich societies so high poverty and insecurity
Gill- supports, more a country spend on welfare, lower the religion

Question 36

Pentecostalism in Latin America

Answer 36

Berger- functional equivalent to webers protestant ethic, encourages capitalism, latin american pentecostalists embrace work ethic like calvinists, ethic like protestantism needed to promote economic development and can be led by minority like pentecostalists, Chile has a growing PC middle class leading capitalism, natural resources also needed tho

Question 37

Cultural defence

Answer 37

religion can be used in defence of national identity, role of religion has to be understood in transnational context
Poland- was under communist rule, catholic church suppressed but for many it was still their national identity, was a popular rallying point for opposition to soviet union and is now involved in politics
Iran- Western powers and oil companies had control on iran and overthrew a democratic government to have a pro western regime, veil was banned and muslim calendar replaced, Islamic republic formed and resisted this regime

Question 38

Hindu nationalism

Answer 38

Nanda- india economically developed but still religious, urban ppl more religious, rejects existential insecurity as an explanation and also not a defensive reaction, increasing religion due to knew wealth, Hinduism tells people being wealthy is important
idea that hinduism is the essence of indian culture and identity, worship of hindu gods become the same as worshipping the nation of india, created gap between hindus and non hindus and hinduism has penetrated public life

Question 39

Clash of Civilisations

Answer 39

religion important in global conflicts- Huntington claims that these conflicts are symptoms of a clash of civilisations, seven civilisations and most are larger than a single nation each with a shared cultural background and a great religion
he claims religious differences between groups are now major source of conflict bc globalisation caused nation states to be less important and religion filled gap, contact between increased, competition between civilisations for economic and military power
jackson- highly orientalist and stereotypes nations, ignores divides within groups

Question 40

Secular Fundamentalism

Answer 40

Davie- emergence of secular forms of fundamentalism and links to two phases of modernity
1- 18th century had enlightenment which created leap in science to improve world and moved to a more secular society, one reaction against this was RF
2- from the 70s the movements that came out the enlightenment (marxism) have been undermined, people believe less and less in science as a way to help the world progress, these secular ideologies are fighting back with their own fundamentalist movement

Question 41

Monotheism and Fundamentalism

Answer 41

fundamentalism mainly in monotheistic religions bc they have one main sacred text that is taken literally
some fundamentalism caused outside like globalisation and some from inside like trends towards diversity

Question 42

Fundamentalism and modernity

Answer 42

Giddens- fundamentalism is a product of and reaction to globalisation, provides certainty in a risk society

Question 43

Cosmopolitanism

Answer 43

Giddens- a way of thinking that embraces modernity and is in keeping with todays globalising world, tolerant of the view of others and open to new ideas, requires people to justify their thinking by the use of rational arguments rather than sacred texts, emphasises pursuit of personal meaning

Question 44

Characteristics of fundamentalism

Answer 44

movement within faith to return to the basics of that religion, arises when there is a threat to the basics of a religion like globalisation
they have, authoritative sacred texts, patriarchy, us and them mentality, aggressive reaction, use of technology, conspiracy theories, prophecy

Question 45

Functionalist views on religion- Durkheim

Answer 45

key feature of religion is not belief in gods but a fundamental distinction between the sacred and the profane found in all religions, sacred are set apart and forbidden and inspire awe, profane are ordinary, sacred things represent society so when worship sacred symbol they worship society

Question 46

Functionalist views on religion- totemism

Answer 46

durkheim- essence of all religion can be found by studying its simplest form in clan society and used Arunta from australia, they come together to worship a sacred totem which is their clan emblem like an animal or plant which represents their identity, reinforce solidarity

Question 47

Functionalist views on religion- psychological functions

Answer 47

Malinowski- performs these functions to help cope w stress that would undermine solidarity, does this when the outcome is important but uncontrollable and thus uncertain- lagoon fishing in trobriand islanders, use rituals. at times of life crises- religion minimises disruption

Question 48

Functionalist view on religion- Values and meanings

Answer 48

Parsons- it creates and legitimates society’s central values and is the primary source of meaning
makes society’s basic norms sacred and promotes value consensus, answers why people suffer etc

Question 49

Functionalist view on religion- Civil religion

Answer 49

Bellah- interested in how religion unifies society especially in a multi faith one like america- they have overarching civil religion, a belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society itself, involves loyalty to the nation state and a belief in god
sacralises american way of life and binds together diff americans

Question 50

Church definition

Answer 50

Troeltsch- large organisations often w millions of members, run by bureaucratic hierarchy of professional priests, claim a monopoly of the truth, universalistic and aim to include all of society but are more attractive to higher classes, place few demands on their members, seen as legit and respected by society

Question 51

Sect definition

Answer 51

Troeltsch- small exclusive groups, hostile to wider society and expect a high level of commitment, draw members from the poor and oppressed, led by charismatic leader rather than bureaucratic hierarchy, believe in monopoly of the truth, seen as deviant by society

Question 52

Cult definition

Answer 52

highly individualistic small group based around some shared themes but usually without a sharply defined and exclusive belief system, led by ‘practioners’ who claim special knowledge, tolerant of other organisations and their beliefs, do not demand strong commitment from followers who are more like customers than members, world affirming claiming to improve life in this world, seen as deviant

Question 53

Denomination definition

Answer 53

Niebuhr- describes denominations like Methodism as lying midway between churches and sects, membership less exclusive than a sect but dont appeal to whole of society like a church, broadly accept societys values but are not linked to the state, impose some minor restrictions on members but not as demanding as sects, tolerant of other religious organisations, do not claim monopoly of the truth, seen as respectable

Question 54

New religious movements

Answer 54

since 60s there has been an explosion in number of new religions and organisations like the children of god or moonies. led to new attempts to classify them. Wallis- categorises NRMs into three groups based on their relationship to the outside world- world rejecting, world accommodating or world affirming

Question 55

New religious movements- World rejecting NRMs

Answer 55

similar to Troelstch’s sects, examples include moonies and the manson family, vary greatly in size with several characteristics- they are clearly religious organisations with a clear notion of god, highly critical of outside world, expect or seek radical change, to achieve salvation members must make sharp break w former life, members live communally with restricted contact w outside world, movement controls all aspects of their lives and often accused of brainwashing, have conservative moral codes

Question 56

New religious movements- World accommodating NRMs

Answer 56

these are often breakaways from existing mainstream churches or denominations like neo-pentecostalists who split from catholicism, neither accept nor reject the world and focus on religious rather than worldly matters, seek to restore the spiritual purity of religion, members tend to live conventional lives

Question 57

New religious movements- World affirming NRMs

Answer 57

differ from all other religious groups and may lack some of the conventional features of religion like collective worship, they offer followers access to spiritual powers, examples include sociology
they accept the world as it is, optimistic and promise followers success in terms of mainstream goals and values like careers, non exclusive and tolerant of other religions, claim to offer additional special knowledge that enables followers to unlock their own spiritual powers, most are cults with followers often customers rather than members and entry is through training, place few demands on them and they carry on normal lives
most successful of the movements

Question 58

Growth of the new age

Answer 58

‘New age’ covers range of beliefs and activities that have been widespread since 80s, Heelas- abt 2000 such activities in UK. many are loosely organised audience of client cults, extremely diverse and eclectic, according to Heelas there are 2 common themes that characterise the New Age- self spirituality, turned away from trad religions to find spirituality inside themselves, detraditionalism, new age rejects the spiritual authority of external trad sources like priests or sacred texts and values personal experience instead
argues most New Age beliefs offer world affirming and rejecting elements

Question 59

New Age postmodernity and modernity

Answer 59

several explanations for popularity of new age, Drane- its appeal is part of a shift towards postmodern society, feature of postmodern society is loss of faith in metanarratives, science promised to bring progress towards better world but hasnt, so people lost faith in experts and cannot meet spiritual needs in church so turned to new age to find truth for ourselves by looking within
by contrast, Bruce- growth is feature of latest phase of modern society not postmodernity, modern society values individualism which is key feature of new age beliefs, notes that new age beliefs are often softer versions of trad eastern religions like buddhism, explains why they are normally audience of client cults
Heelas sees new age and modernity being linked in 4 ways:
source of identity- person has diff roles in modern society so fragmented identity which NA fixes
consumer culture- offers diff way to achieve perfection
rapid social change- sense of certainty
decline of organised religion- new age strongest where churchgoing is lowest

Question 60

Ethnicity and religiosity

Answer 60

63% of UK christians but uk is a multi-religious society, many christians are of black african or caribbean origin, Brierley found in london that black people 2x likely to attend church as white people, Modood found a decline in importance of religion for all ethnic groups
Reasons for differences:
Cultural defence- Bird- religion among minorities can be a basis for community solidarity to preserve ones culture and language
Cultural transition- Herberg- high levels of religious participation among first gen immigrants in USA is bc it eases transition. Bruce- sees similar patterns in UK, once a group like irish catholics has made transition into wider society, religion may lose its importance
Pryce- studied african caribbean community in bristol and found that cultural defence and transition is important, argues pentecostalism is highly adaptive ‘religion of the oppressed’ that provided migrants with values appropriate to new world they found themselves in, helped african caribbeans adapt to british society

Question 61

Age and religiosity

Answer 61

older the person is, more likely they are to attend religious services, ongoing fall in church attendance w the fall sharpest among the young, number of 15-19yr olds attending church expected to fall by 37% by 2030
Reasons (Voas and Crockett):
Ageing effect- heelas- ppl become more interested in spirituality as they age, as we approach death we naturally become more concerned abt the afterlife
Period effect- people born during particular period may be more or less likely to be religious bc of events they lived through
Secularisation- as religion declines in importance, each gen is less religious than the one before it
they found little evidence for first two so argue secularisation is most important reason- parents stop making children go to church

Question 62

Explaining growth of NRMs- Marginality

Answer 62

as Troelstch noted sects draw members from the poor and oppressed, according to Weber sects tend to arise in groups who are marginal to society, sects offer a solution to the fact these groups do not receive their economic rewards or social status by offering members a theory of disprivilege- a religious explanation and justification for their suffering and disadvantage, may explain their misfortune as a test of faith

Question 63

Explaining growth of NRMs- Relative deprivation

Answer 63

people who are privileged can feel deprived compared to other people, MC people feel spiritually deprived , Wallis- turn to sects for a sense of community, Stark and Bainbridge argue it is the relatively deprived who break away from churches to form sects, when MC members of a church seek to compromise its beliefs to fit in w society, deprived members break away to form sects that safeguard the og message of the organisation, they argue world rejecting sects offer to the deprived the compensators they need for the rewards they are denied in this world

Question 64

Explaining growth of NRMs- Social change

Answer 64

Wilson- periods of rapid change disrupt and undermine established norms and values producing anomie or normlessness, those who are most affected by the disruption may turn to sects in response to the uncertainty created, the dislocation created by the industrial revolution in britain led to the birth of Methodism which offered sense of community
Bruce- people turn to sects as response to social change in modernisation and secularisation, people less attracted to churches bc they demand too much commitment whereas cults are less demanding and require fewer sacrifices

Question 65

Dynamics of sects and NRMs- Denomination or death

Answer 65

Niebuhr- sects come into existence because of schism- splitting from established church because of a disagreement over religious doctrine, argue theyre short lived and that within a generation they either die out or abandon their ideas and compromise w the world and become a denomination, several reasons- second gen who are born into the sect lack commitment of their parents, sects that practice asceticism tend to become prosperous and upwardly mobile and so are tempted to compromise with the world, sects w charismatic leader either collapse on leaders death or bureaucratic leadership takes over and it becomes denomination

Question 66

Dynamics of sects and NRMs- Sectarian cycle

Answer 66

Stark and Bainbridge- see religious organisations moving through a cycle, in first stage (schism) theres tension between needs of deprived and privileged members of a church, deprived members break away to found a world rejecting sect. second stage is one of initial fervour w a charismatic leadership and great tension between sects beliefs and those of wider society. in third stage, denominationalism, the protestant ethic effect and coolness of second gen means fervour disappears. fourth stage, establishment, sees sect become more world accepting and tension w wider society reduces. in final stage, further schism results when more zealous or less privileged members break away to found new sect true to og message

Question 67

Established sects

Answer 67

Wilson- not all sects will follow stark and bainbridges model, if they do depends on whether they are conversionists or adventists
conversionists- aim to convince large numbers to join religion, easier if you are world affirming and match people’s lifestyles, more likely to become denomination
adventists- aim to gain salvation by being as separate as they can to the world around them, easier if more world rejecting, more likely to remain a sect
the amish is example of established sect

Question 68

Gender and religiosity

Answer 68

women have a higher belief in things associated w religion- God, sin and the devil, 84% believe in God
Davie- there are gender differences in terms of religious beliefs, practice, private prayer and more:
most churchgoers are female (outnumber males by half a mil), more women say they have a religion, more women say religion is important to them, more likely to practice their religion

Question 69

Gender and religiosity- Reasons

Answer 69

Miller and Hoffman- three main reasons for womens higher level of religiosity:
-gender differences in risk taking, by not being religious ppl are risking that religion might be right and they will go to hell, women more risk averse and so less likely to take the risk of not being religious
-women more likely to be religious bc socialised to be more passive and obedient, these are qualities valued by religion so more likely to be attracted to it
-womens gender roles mean theyre more likely to work part time or be full time carers so have more scope for organising their time to participate in religious activities, also more likely to be attracted to church as source of gender identity

Question 70

Gender and religiosity- Women and the New age

Answer 70

Heelas and Woodhead found 80% of participants in holistic milieu in Kendal were female, may be bc women are often more involved with nature and natural processes and a healing role. also more interested bc new age are abt being authentic rather than playing roles like gender roles
Woodhead- new age beliefs attractive bc they appeal to individual sphere compared to conflict women experience in paid work between sphere at work and home, this sphere is concerned w individual autonomy and personal growth rather than role performance, creates new source of identity for women

Question 71

Gender and religiosity- Women, compensators and sects

Answer 71

Bruce- estimates there are twice as many women in sects
Stark and Bainbridge- ppl may participate in sects bc they offer compensators for organismic, ethical and social deprivation which are more common among women:
organismic- stems from physical and mental health problems which women are more likely to suffer from and so seek healing sects offer
ethical- women more morally conservative so see world as being in moral decline which sects share
social- sects attract poorer groups and women more likely to be poor

Question 72

Gender and religiosity- Pentecostal gender paradox

Answer 72

pentecostalism generally regarded as a patriarchal form of religion- men seen as head as household and heads of church however it has proved attractive to women
Brusco- study of pentecostalists in colombia found answer lay in fact it demands its followers to follow ascetic lifestyle as well as trad gender division, pentecostal women can use these ideas to combat a widespread culture of machismo in latin america where men often spend 30% of income on alcohol, pentecostal men pressured by their pastor and church community to change their ways and so raises the standard of living for women and children
pentecostalism is not offering western style liberation for women, men retain headship role in family and church but as Brusco shows, latin american women can and do use pentecostalism as a means of improving their position

Question 73

CUDOS norms

Answer 73

Merton- science can only thrive as a major social institution if it recieves support from other institutions and values, argues this first occurred in england as result of the values and attitudes created by the protestant reformation especially puritanism, they stressed social welfare and attracted by the fact that science could produce technological inventions to improve conditions of life, the new institution of science also received support from economic and military institutions. he argues science as institution needs a set of norms that make scientists act in ways that serve the goal of increasing scientific knowledge:
Communism- scientific knowledge not private property and must share it for it to grow
Universalism- truth of scientific knowledge judged by universal criteria
Disinterestedness- being committed to discovering knowledge for its own sake, cant practice fraud if others check it
Organised Scepticism- no knowledge claim is regarded as sacred and every idea is open to questioning

Question 74

Science as open belief system

Answer 74

Popper- science is open belief system where every scientists theories are open to scrutiny, science goverened by falsificationism, in popper view discarding falsified knowledge claims is what enables scientific understanding of the world to grow and builds on the achievements of previous scientists to develop a greater understanding of world
science is not ideological

Question 75

Science is ideological

Answer 75

Science is an ideology because it reinforces those in power similarly to feminism or marxism, they are the ones that decide what gets funding and what research is reported in the media and they are not going to report something that undermines them