Behaviourist approach

Question 1

Skinner (1938)

Answer 1

Demonstrated that a pigeon can learn to behave in certain ways due to being reward positively with food.

Question 1

Pavlov (1902)

Answer 1

Described classical conditioning from observing salivating dogs.
Before conditioning:
Food is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the salivation is the unconditional response (UCR).
During conditioning:
A neutral stimulus (NS) (the sound of a bell) is presented alongside the UCS.
This is repeated until association occurs.
After conditioning:
The bell Is the conditioned stimulus (CS) which produces the conditioned response (CR) (salvation).

Question 2

Cate et al (1982)

Answer 2

Asked 337 individuals to assess their current relationships in terms of reward level and satisfaction.
Results showed that reward level was superior to all other factors in determining relationship satisfaction.

Question 3

Hayes (1985)

Answer 3

Found that we gain satisfaction from giving as well as receiving.

Question 4

Thibaut and Kelley (1959)

Answer 4

Describes romantic relationships using the economic terminology of profit and loss.
(Rewards and costs)
They claim that partners in relationships strive to maximise rewards and minimise costs.
Rewards:
Companionship.
Praise.
Emotional support.
Costs:
Stress.
Arguments.
Compromises.
Rewards and costs are subjective.
Costs also tend to change over time.

Question 4

Clore and Byrne (1974)

Answer 4

The model is based on assumptions:
That people experience stimuli as rewarding or punishing and seek out those that are rewarding.
Positive feelings are associated with rewarding stimuli.
Other people are liked or disliked according to their association with rewarding or punishing stimuli.
We learn to associate positive feelings with people that are linked to rewards.

Question 5

Ost (1987)

Answer 5

It is possible that traumatic incidents did happen but have since been forgotten.

Question 6

Di Nardo et al (1988)

Answer 6

Some people who have experienced a traumatic incident, don’t develop a phobia.

Question 7

O.H Mowrer (1947)

Answer 7

Explained why a phobia doesn’t just disappear.
In his two-process model, the first stage is classical conditioning and then, in a second stage, operant conditioning occurs.
Classical conditioning explains how phobias are acquired and operant conditioning explains how they are maintained.
Once a fear is learned an individual will avoid the situation producing the fear.
The avoidance of the phobic stimulus reduces fear and is therefore reinforcing.
(Negative reinforcement)
The fact that no anxiety is experienced from this avoidance behaviour is positively reinforcing.
This reinforcement maintains the avoidance response.

Question 7

Martin Seligman (1970)

Answer 7

Biological preparedness.
Argued that animals, including humans, are genetically programmed to rapidly learn an association between certain stimuli and fear.
These stimuli are referred to as ancient fears:
Things that would’ve been dangerous in our evolutionary past.
It is adaptive to rapidly learn to avoid such stimuli.

Question 8

Jo Frost

Answer 8

Supernanny Jo Frost used the “naughty step” to correct inappropriate behaviour.
These techniques work best when parents make a fuss of what their child does right.

Question 8

Morris (2014)

Answer 8

Claims that the “naughty step” can have long-term emotional affects.
Children don’t have the same ability as adults to reflect on their own behaviour and verbalise the feelings they experience from things like the “naughty step”.
Without empathy and help with their feelings, the “naughty step” may ultimately have a negative effect on development.

Question 9

McAllister et al (1969)

Answer 9

Looked at inappropriate talking in high school English classes.
They found that the increased use of “teacher praise” and “teacher disapproval” led to a decrease in inappropriate talking.
In a control condition there was no decrease.

Question 10

LeFrancois (2000)

Answer 10

Suggests that classical conditioning can be used to improve student performance.
He proposes that teachers should maximise the pleasant stimuli in their classrooms and minimise the unpleasant stimuli.
This means students have more positive feelings about the work environment and their behaviour and / or academic performance will improve.

Question 11

Lepper at al (1973)

Answer 11

Asked nursery children to draw some “nice” pictures.
When children were promised a reward, they spent half as much time drawing as children who were not promised a reward.
This suggests that their own motivation had been destroyed by the expectation of extrinsic rewards.

Question 12

Dweck (1975)

Answer 12

Found that children who were praised for doing good work on a maths test did worse on a later, more difficult test than children who were told they were lazy.
The second group had learned task persistence whereas the “praised” group gave up easily.
This shows that rewards don’t always lead to better performance.

Question 13

Lewis (1995)

Answer 13

Conducted observations of Japanese elementary schools and found the use of reward systems or praise was rarely used but also that children seemed to be internally motivated.