Behavioral Sciences Chapter 6: Identity and Personality

Question 1

What is the self-concept?

Answer 1

The self-concept is the sum of who we think we were, who we think we currently are, and who we think we may be in the future.

Question 2

What is identity and how is it related to the self-concept?

Answer 2

Identity is defined as the individual components of our self-concept related to the groups of which we belong (religous affiliation, sexual orientation, personal relationships, etc).

• Our individual identities do not always need to be compatible as our identities take on particular identities in different social sitations.

Question 3

What is gender identity?

Answer 3

Gender identity describes a person’s appraisal of him- or herself on scales of masculinity and femininity.

• Androgeny
• Undifferentiated

Question 4

What is androgyny?

Answer 4

Androgyny is defined as the state of being simutaneously very masculine and very feminine.

• A type of gender identification

Question 5

What is undifferentiated in terms of gender identity?

Answer 5

Undifferentiated is defined as the state of being simutaneously low in masculinity and low in femininity.

Question 6

At what age is gender identity usually established?

Answer 6

Gender identity is usually established by the age of 3.

• However, gender identity may change and morph over time.

Question 7

What is ethnic identity and how is it different from national identity?

Answer 7

Ethnic identity is prodominantly determined by birth and refers to the part of one’s identity associated with membership in a particular racial/ethnic group.

Nationality is based on political borders and the symbols and customs associated with a nation.

Question 8

What are three factors that contribute to a person’s ethnic identity, and how are these factors different from those that determine national identity?

Answer 8

Ethnic identity is determined by common ancestory, cultural heritage, language, and other similarities. Rather than being determined by birth, national identity is determined by the political borders of where one lives and the cultural identity of that nation.

Question 9

What is the hierarchy of salience and how does it relate to identity?

Answer 9

The hierarchy of salience states that the situation dictates which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment.

• Salience of identities (importance/necessity to be noticed) is determined by the amount of work we have invested into the identity, the rewards and gratification associated with the identity, and the amount of self-esteem we have associated with the identity.

Question 10

What is the self-discrepancy theory?

Answer 10

The Self-Discrepancy Theory states that each person has three selves (the actual self, the ideal self, and the ought self) and that the perceived difference between these selves lead to negative feelings.

Question 11

What is the actual self?

Answer 11

The actual self is the way we view ourselves currently.

Question 12

What is the ideal-self?

Answer 12

The ideal-self is the person we would like to be.

Question 13

What is the ought self?

Answer 13

The ought self is our perception of how others think we should be.

Question 14

What happens when there is little discrepancy between our actual self, ideal self, and ought self?

Answer 14

Generally, the closer the three selves (actual, ideal, ought) are to one another, the higher our self-esteem or self-worth will be.

Question 15

What happens when there is a large discrepancy between our three selves?

Answer 15

If there is a large discrepancy between our actual, ideal, and ought selves, our self-esteem will be low. Those with low self-esteem will be far more critical of themselves, which, as a result, causes them to take criticism from others poorly and believe that people will only accept them if they are successful.

Question 16

What is self-efficacy?

Answer 16

Self-efficacy is our belief in our ability to succeed.

Question 17

What is learned helplessness?

Answer 17

Learned helplessness occurs when an individual develops a perceived lack of control over the outcome of a situation.

• Learned helplessness has been found to be strongly related to clinical depression.

Question 18

What qualitities do they happiest people have in common?

Answer 18

The happiest people are those ho have high self-esteem, have high self-efficacy, have an internal locus of control believing they control their own destinies, and see themselves living up to their own expectation of who they would like to be.

Question 19

What is the difference between self-concept and identity?

Answer 19

Self-concept describes the sum of all the phases that come to mind when we think of who we were in the past, who we currently are, and who we may become in the future. Identity describes a set of behaviors and labels we take on when in a specific group/situation.

Question 20

What did Sigmund Freud believe were the main forces accounting for human psychological processes?

Answer 20

Sigmund freud believed that libidinal energy and the drive to reduce libidinal tension were the underlying dynamic forces that accounted for human psychological processes.

Question 21

What are the 4 identity development theories and who were they created by?

Answer 21

1. Psychosexual Development theory- Sigmund Freud
   
   • Involves sexual conflict and our attempt to resolve our libidinal tension
2. Psychosocial Development theory - Erik Erikson
   
   • Involves internal conflict which can be positively or negatively resolved
   • Failure to develop does not inhibit progressing into the next stage. It can later be learned in a later stage in life.
3. Theory of Moral Reasoning - Kohlberg
   
   • Morality behind decision making at different stages in life.
4. Cultural and Biosocial Development - Vygotsky
   
   • Involves Zone of Proximal Development

Question 22

What is Erikson’s Theory of psychosocial development?

Answer 22

Erik Erikson’s theory of pyschosocial development theorizes that personality development is driven by the successful resolution of a series emotional and social conflicts.

There are 8 conflicts:

1. Trust vs Mistrust (0 - 1 year)
2. Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt (1 - 3 years)
3. Initiative vs Guilt (3 - 6 years)
4. Industry vs Inferiority (6 - 12)
5. Identity vs Role Confusion (12 - 20 years)
6. Intimacy vs Isolation (20 - 40 years)
7. Generativity vs Stagnation (40 - 65 years)
8. Integrity vs Despair (65 - Death)

Question 23

What are the first two stages of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development and what occurs during theses stages?

Answer 23

The first two stages of the psychosocial development theory proposed by Erikson were 1. Trust vs Mistrust and 2. Autonomy vs Shame and Guilt

• In trust vs mistrust stage the child is figuring out if it can trust the world it lives in and more importantly the people in the child’s life (caregivers specifically).
  
  • Positive resolution results in trust and negative resolution results in mistrust.
• In autonomy vs shame & guilt, the child is discovering their surroundings and developing its interests.
  
  • Positive resolution results in the child feeling capable of exerting control over the world and the ability to exercise choice as well as self-restraint.
  • Negative resolution results in the child feeling overly controlled and criticized, causing a sense of doubt and a persistant external locus of control (doubt and shame in their autonomy).

Question 24

What is the third and fourth stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development?

Answer 24

The 3rd and 4th stages of Erikson’s theory of pscychosocial development are 3: Initiative vs Guilt and 4: Industry vs Inferiority.

• In initiative vs guilt, the child learns basic cause and effect principles in physics, and starting and finishing out tasks for a purpose.
  
  • Positive resolution results in a sense of purpose, the ability to initiate activities, and the ability to enjoy accomplishments
  • Negative resolution results in the child feeling fear of punishment that may either be self restrictive or may overcompensate by showing off.
• In Inferiority vs Industry, the child asks itself can I make it in the world of people and things?
  
  • Positive resolution resluts in the child feeling capable being able to utilize and apply their skill set to affect the world in the way the child desires.
  • Negative resolution results in a sense of inadequency, low self-esteem, and incompetence.

Question 25

What is Identity vs role confusion?

Answer 25

These are the 5th stage of Erikson’s theory of personality development.

• In Identitity vs Role confusion, adolescents explore their independence to determine who they are and what their purpose in society is. At this stage individuals either form a single identity or become unsure about their place in society.
  
  • Positive resolution results in fidelity (the ability to see oneslef as a unique and intergrated person with sustained loyalties).
  • Negative resolution results in confusion about one’s identity and an amorphous personality that shifts from day to day.

Question 26

What is positive resolution of intamacy vs isolation?

Answer 26

Intimacy vs Isolation is the 6th stage in Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development and occurs from the age of 20 to 40. During this stage, people focus on creating long-lasting bonds/relationships with others.

• Positive resolution results in ability to love and commit oneslef to another person and one’s own goals.
• Negative resolution results in withdrawn individuals or people that avoid commitment, only forming superficial relationships.

Question 27

What is the focus of Generativity vs Stagnation?

Answer 27

Generativity vs Stagnation is the 7th stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development occuring from age 40 to 65. The focus of an individual in this stage is on advancing present and future society.

• Positive resolution results in an individual capable of being productive, caring, and being a contributing member of society.
• Negative resolution results in self-indulgence, boredom, and being self-centered with little care for others.

Question 28

What is the focus of integrity vs despair?

Answer 28

Integrity vs Despair is the 8th and final stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. In this stage a person tends to focus on reflecting and contemplating.

• Positive resolution results in wisdom, assurance in the meaning of life, and feeling that life has been worthwhile, along with the readiness to face death.
• Negative resolution results in feelings of bitterness about one’s life, feeling that life has been worthless, and fear over one’s impending death.

Question 29

What are the 3 phases of Kohlberg’s theory of Moral reasoning and what are its 6 stages that comprise the 3 main phases?

Answer 29

Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning is divided into a chronological progression from the preconventional phase to the conventional phase to the postconventional phase, although not everyon reaches the final postconventional phase.

The first 2 stages comprise the preconventional phase, the 3rd and 4th phase comprise the conventional phrase, and the 5th and 6th stage constitute the postconventional stage.

1. Obedience
2. Self-interest
3. Conformity
4. Law & Order
5. Social Contract
6. Universal Human Ethics

Question 30

Describe the preconventianal phase of Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning and the stages within it.

Answer 30

The preconventional phase focus on the consequences of situations.

• In the obedience stage (stage 1), a child is concerned with avoiding punishment
• In the self-interest stage (stage 2), the child is about gaining rewards.
  
  • Often called the instrumental relativist stage because it is based on the concept of reciprocity and sharing; “If you scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours.”

Question 31

Describe the conventianal phase of Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning and the stages within it.

Answer 31

The conventional phase develops when individuals begin to see themselves in terms of their relationships to others, and this phase is based on the understanding and accepting of social rules.

• During conformity (stage 3), an individual places emphasis on being a good person in which we seek approval of others.
  
  • “I should not steal because it is wrong”
• During law & order (stage 4), an individual maintains the social order in highest regard.
  
  • “I will not steal because it is wrong”

Question 32

Describe the postconventianal phase of Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning and the stages within it.

Answer 32

The postconventional morality stage describes a level of reasoning that Kohlberg claimed not everyone was capable of and is based on social mores, which may conflict with laws.

• During the social construct stage (stage 5), individuals view moral rules as conventions that are designed to ensure the greater good, with focusing on individual rights.
• During the Universal human ethics stage (stage 6), an individual reasons that decisions should be made in consideration of abstact principles.
  
  • “It is wrong for one person to hold another person’s life for ransom.

Question 33

What is the zone of proximal development?

Answer 33

The zone of proximal development refers to skills that have not fully developed, but are in the process of development. Gaining of these skills require the assistance of a “more knowledgable other.”

• Ex: Riding a bike

Question 34

What are the 4 main categories of which theories of personality fit into?

Answer 34

1. Psychoanalytical (psychodynamic)
2. Humanistic (phenomological)
3. Trait and type
4. Behaviorist

Question 35

What do all psychodyamic (pschoanalytic) theories of personality assume?

Answer 35

All psychodyamic (pschoanalytic) theories of personality assume that unconscious internal states motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personalities.

Question 36

What are and is the relationship between the Id, Ego, and superego?

Answer 36

The Id is driving by our primary process which seeks to immediately gratify our innate instincts to satisfy/relieve our frustrations/conflicts (pleasure principle). The ego operates according to the reality principle taking into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits the acitivity of the id and the id’s pleasure principle. This guidance is referred to as the secondary process. The ego is also responsible for moderating the desires of the superego which aim to focus on the ideal self judging our actions and seponding to our accomplishments with pride and failures with guilt.

Question 37

Due to conflicts between the id and superego, what does Freud propose our brains utilize?

Answer 37

Due to conflicts between the id and superego, Freud proprose our brain utilizes defense mechanisms which are the ego’s recourse for relieving anxiety caused by this clash.

• All defense mechanisms have 2 common characteristics.

1. They deny, falsify, or distort reality.
2. They operate unconsciously

Question 38

What are the two types of Freudian instincts?

Answer 38

The two types of Freudian instincts are:

1. Eros (life instincts)
   
   • Promote an individual’s quest for survival through thirst, hunger, and sexual needs
2. Thanatos (death instincts)
   
   • Represent an unconscious wish for for death and destruction

Question 39

What is Freud’s definition of the preconscious compared to the unconscious?

Answer 39

Freud defined the preconscious as the thoughts that we are not currently aware of, while the unconscious is thoughts that have been repressed.

• Defense mechanisms are based on unconscious (repression of thoughts)

Question 40

What are the 8 defense mechanisms?

Answer 40

The 8 defense mechanisms are:

1. Repression - unconsious forgetting
2. Supression - conscious forgetting
3. Regression - reversion to earlier (less refined) developmental state
4. Reaction Formation - Supressing urges by unconsiously converting these urges into their exact opposites.
5. Projection - attributer their undesired feelings to others (rorschach inkblot and thematic apperception tests)
6. Rationalization - justification of behaviors
7. Displacement - transference of undesired urge from one person or object to another
8. Sublimation - the transformation of an undesired urge into socially acceptable behaviors