Behavioral Sciences Flashcards
spreading activation
the spread of activation from the representations of presented words to semantically related words.
recency effect
superior free recall performance for the last few items on the list
proactive interference
the interference of information from long term memory with new information.
Social reproduction
refers to the perpetuation (reproduction) of inequalities through social institutions (like educational systems or the economy).
Internal locus of control
attributing an outcome to a personal trait
Social stratification
refers to the objective social hierarchy in a society (according to social group characteristics)
Cultural relativism
the evaluation of another culture using that other culture’s standards (norms and values) rather than one’s own cultural standards
Institutional discrimination
refers to differential treatment of sociodemographic groups that is due to institutional culture or policies (rather than individual actions)
Confirmation bias
the tendency to favor information that confirms existing beliefs, both in the search for evidence and in the interpretation of evidence
Organization
a (relatively) formal group with an identifiable membership that engages in concerted action to achieve a common purpose
Group polarization
refers to the phenomenon in which people who are in agreement get together with each other to discuss an issue, and their views get more extreme
Conflict theory
calls attention to differences across social groups in power and status. The theory focuses on such structural differences among groups to explain how individuals, such as patients and doctors, relate to one another
Anomie
a lack of attachment to social norms, which can result in a breakdown in the connection between individuals and their community
Gardner’s idea of eight intelligences
introduced eight different types of intelligences consisting of: Linguistic, Logical/Mathematical, Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalist
Spearman’s idea of general intelligence
the g factor, or general intelligence, influences performance on all cognitive tasks
Galton’s idea of hereditary genius
a system of arranged marriages between men of distinction and women of wealth would eventually produce a gifted race.
Kohlberg’s preconventional stage of moral development
children’s decisions are primarily shaped by the expectations of adults and the consequences for breaking the rules, until about age 9
Kohlberg’s conventional stage of moral development
the acceptance of social rules regarding what is good and moral. During this time, adolescents and adults internalize the moral standards they have learned from their role models and from society
Kohlberg’s post-conventional stage of moral development
people develop an understanding of abstract principles of morality (Social contract and individual rights; Universal principles)
James-Lange theory of emotion
emotions occur as a result of physiological reactions to events. This theory suggests that seeing an external stimulus leads to a physiological reaction.
Schachter & Singer’s two-factor theory
states that 2 factors are needed to experience emotion. First, environmental stimuli elicits a physiological response. Second, we cognitively appraise this physiological activity, and try to give it the correct label.
Cannon–Bard theory
states that the lower part of the brain, also called the thalamus, controls your experience of emotion. At the same time, the higher part of the brain, also called the cortex, controls the expression of emotion, physiological arousal and emotions are experienced simultaneously.
Socialization
the process by which individuals learn norms and values, and popular media is an agent of socialization for instilling norms and values.
Piaget’s sensorimotor period
The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations, Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen; 0-2 years old
Piaget’s preoperational period
Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects, Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others, do not yet have conservation, 2-7 years old
Piaget’s concrete operational period
During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events, begin to understand conservation, 7-11 years old
Piaget’s formal operational period
At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems, Abstract thought emerges, moral and ethical issues, 12 and up
periphery nation
less economically developed with weak governments and institutions, and often dependent on the core nations
core nation
more economically developed with strong governments and institutions
semi-periphery nation
are relatively weak in economic and political infrastructure, but are developing their economies and governments
Mead’s theory of identity
the “I” is the spontaneous and autonomous part of the self; the “me” is the part of the self that is formed in interaction with others and with the general social environment
stimulus generalization
the extension of a conditioned response (CR) to stimuli that resemble the original CS
working memory
a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold information temporarily
Bystander effect
the observation that an individual who needs assistance will be less likely to be helped (or receive needed help more slowly) as the number of people nearby increases
Meritocracy
when appointments, selections, and responsibilities are assigned to individuals based on merit – intelligence, skills, credentials, and other similar factors
left hemisphere of brain
linguistic abilities are lateralized
linguistic determinism hypothesis
the concept that language and its structures limit and determine human knowledge or thought, as well as thought processes such as categorization, memory, and perception.
Ethnocentrism
the tendency to look at other cultures through the lens of one’s own culture
Social capital
refers to the instrumental benefits of social ties; connections within and between social networks
social constructionism
examines the development of jointly-constructed understandings of the world that form the basis for shared assumptions about reality. technologies are not independent from the societies in which they were created but rather have social factors like values built into them (regardless of whether or not the technology creators intended to incorporate social factor)
