before midterm basics

Question 1

define descriptive research

Answer 1

describes characteristics of existing phenomena (at a given time and place)
- provides a broad picture
- serves as a basis for other types of research
- does not include treatment or control groups

does not imply causation

Question 2

describe historical research

Answer 2

describes past events in the context of other past or current events

Question 3

explain correlational research

Answer 3

asks what several events have in common
- asks whether knowing one event is assoicated with another event

does not imply causation

Question 4

what is non-experimental research and what are the methods used?

Answer 4

describes a relationship between variables

Methods:
- descriptive
- historical
- correlational
- qualitative

cannot test cause and effect relationships

Question 5

describe qualitative research

Answer 5

examine behaviour in a natural social, cultural and political context

usually results in non-qualitiative data

Question 6

what is experimental research and what are the 2 types?

Answer 6

tries to discover casual relationship

types:
true experimental
quasi experimental

Question 7

describe true experimental

Answer 7

participants are assigned to groups
the treatment variable is controlled by the researcher
control of potential causes of behaviour

Question 8

explain quasi experimental

Answer 8

participants are pre-assigned to groups
- useful when researcher cannot manipulate variables

Question 9

what are variables?

Answer 9

a class of measurements that can take more than one value

there are 2 primary types of variables:
dependent variable & independent variable

Question 10

what is a dependent variable(DV)?

Answer 10

a variable that is measured to see whether the treatment or manipulation of the independent variable had an effect

• its value depends on changes in the independent variable

the effect

Question 11

what is an independent variable?

Answer 11

a variable that is manipulated to examine its impact on a dependent variable

• its value is independent of other variables in your study

the cause

Question 12

so we know the 2 main types of variables but what are the 2 main sub-types?

Answer 12

categorical (discrete)
- fixed number of values (e.x. dead/alive, obese/healthy/underweight)

continuous:
- can have any value between a theoretical minimum and maximum
(e.x. birth weight, BMI, temperaure)

Question 13

what is a control variable?

Answer 13

a variable that is related to the dependent variable.
- the influence of which needs to be removed

Question 14

what is an extraneous variable?

Answer 14

a variable that is related to the dependent variable or independent variable that is not part of the experiment

Question 15

what is a hypothesis?

Answer 15

reflects the general problem under study
- it restates the general problem in a form that is precise enough to allow testing

null hypothesis vs research hypothesis

Question 16

explain the null hypothesis

Answer 16

states that there is no relationship between the independent and dependent variables under study

Question 17

what is the purpose of the null? and when is it accepted as true?

Answer 17

it is a starting point for analysis
- accepted when absent of other information

provides a benchmark for comparison

Question 18

what is a research ypothesis?

Answer 18

a statement of unequality
- a relationship exists between the independent and dependent variables

Question 19

explain directionality of the hypothesis

Answer 19

non directional hypothesis:
- two tailed
- predicts that the independent variable will have an effect on the dependent variable, but the direction of the effect is not specified
(just states that there will be a difference)

directional hypothesis:
- a prediction made by a researcher regarding a positive or negative change, relationship, or difference between two variables of a population
( this prediction is typically based on past research, accepted theory, extensive experience, or literature on the topic

Question 20

what is the purpose of an alternative hypothesis?

Answer 20

it is directly tested during the research process to compare agasint the null hypothesis

Question 21

null vs research hypothesis

Answer 21

null: equality between variables
- refers to population
- indirectly tested

Research: inequality between variables
- refers to a sample
- directly tested

Question 22

characteristics of a good hypothesis

Answer 22

stated in declaritive form
posits a relationship between variables
reflects on theory or literature
breif and to the point
is testable

Question 23

results from a sample should _ to the population

Answer 23

generalize

Question 24

what is the concept of significance?

Answer 24

statistical concept is applied to differences between 2 or more samples
- experiments always assume the null
- statistical significance is used to test differences

Question 25

how is the concept of significance used in research

Answer 25

the P value: (probability that the null hypothesis is true)

if p is less than .05 then reject the null
if p is greater than .05 then accept the null

Question 26

explain the flow of research

Answer 26

1. idea
2. research question
3. research hypothesis
4. literature review

Question 27

define general, secondary and primary sources when reviewing literature

Answer 27

General:
- provides an overview of a topic and gives leads to where more info can be found
(newspapers, magazines)

secondary:
- provides a level of information “once removed” from the original work
( books on specific subjects and reviews of research)

Primary:
- the original reports of the orignial work or experience
( journals, abstracts, scholarly books, educational resources)

Question 28

what are the pros and cons to using journal sites?

Answer 28

pros:
- excellent source
- specific

cons:
- need name of resource
- subscription

Question 29

what are the pros and cons to using library databases?

Answer 29

pros:
- free through library
- ideal for indepth research on complex topics
- written by professionals

cons:
- can be hard to find simple explanations
- full text isnt always available

Question 30

pros and cons to using google/ google scholar

Answer 30

pros:
- simple to use
- wide variety of materials
- save to read later

cons:
- wide range but not comprehensive
- doesnt provide notice of when its materials are updated

Question 31

explain surveys in research

Answer 31

assesses construct such as attitudes, beliefs etc.
can be done with pen and paper method or by interview

multiple types of questions

Question 32

what types of questions are used in surveys

Answer 32

structured questions:
- possible answers are pre identified
(sex, level of education, year of study)

open-ended questions:
- no single answer
(reason for participation, ideal travel destinations)

using both would be considered a mixed methods design

Question 33

how to do survey research:

4 steps to the plan

Answer 33

1. clarify the objectives
2. identify a sample
3. define a method
4. code and score

Question 34

explain the pros and cons to the pencil and paper survey method

Answer 34

pros:
- fast, sample size and ananonymous

cons:
- impersonal, no probing, no control over answers, flexibility

Question 35

what is correlational research?

Answer 35

implies that variables share something in common
does not imply cause and effect relationship

Question 36

what is a correlation coefficient?

Answer 36

a number between −1 and +1 calculated so as to represent the linear dependence of two variables or sets of data
- (the closer it is to 1 it implies there is alot of shared variability

the strength of relationship is indicated by the absolute value of the coefficient

change in x = change in y

Question 37

what are the types of correlations?

3

Answer 37

no correlation

positive (direct):
- increase in x = increase in y

negative (inverse):
- increase in x = decrease in y

Question 38

what is the coefficient of determination?

Answer 38

the squared value of correlational coefficient
- proportion of variance in one variable explained by variance in the other

Question 39

what is the coefficient of alienation

Answer 39

1 - coefficient of determination
- proportion of variance in one variable unexplained by variance in the other

Question 40

what are the roles of quasi experimental designs?

Answer 40

investigates differences between groups (could also look at relationships)
- can control extraneous variables
- can compare variables of interest (statistically)

Question 41

what are the characteristics of quasi experimental designs?

Answer 41

compares groups that are pre-existent
- ethical issues

Question 42

explain the difference between random selection and random assignment

Answer 42

random selection:
- randomly selecting members of a population for study sample

random assignment:
- sorting sample into control and experimental groups (group 1 and group 2)
- helps to ensure groups are comparable

Question 43

what happens if we dont randomly select or assign?

Answer 43

sample will likely be biased in some way & data will not represent the entire population

Question 44

what are the 4 certain types of quasi designs?

Answer 44

one group post test
one group pre/post test
two groups pre/post test
non-equivalent control

Question 45

one group post test

Answer 45

only testing one group after the experiment

Question 46

one group pre/post test

Answer 46

testing one group before and after experiment

referred to as ABA or OXO

Question 47

two group pre/post test

Answer 47

both pre-determined groups get questionnaire before and after test however only one group is given the intervention

ABAB or OXOX

Question 48

2 group post test

Answer 48

pre-determined groups
one group is the control group
provide treatment to experimental group and assess both post test

Question 49

non-equivalent controls

Answer 49

predetermined groups examined
- the same as 2 group pre/post test but the groups differ and they both recieve the same treatment

ex. group 1 = adults living with elderly parents
group 2 = parents living alone
- questionnaire is given to both groups before
- both groups partake in same treatment
- post test is given to see results

treatment is manipulated

Question 50

conclusion about pre-post tests and their cofounding variables

Answer 50

maturation:
- individuals change over time
- (follow up)

practice effects:
find what is influencing the scores
(group 1 recieves 1 treatment, group 2 recieves another treatment. post test shows that both groups increase on the post test)
- (first time didnt know what to expect, second time you have an idea)

mulitple treatments:
- individual participates in multiple sessions
(session 1: memorize words with the music on)
(session 2: memorize words without music)

regression to the mean:
- pre-selecting groups based on performance on. a chance event
- (those who over/under perform will go back to their chance level (mean)
- (ask once then give a 2nd test using the same stratgey, the mean score would be expected to be close to 50)

Question 51

what are the other 4 popular designs of quasi experimental?

Answer 51

meta-analysis
longitudinal
cross sectional
sequential

Question 52

describe meta-analysis

give pros and cons

Answer 52

not an experiment
- a statistical process that combines the data of multiple studies to find common results and to identify overall trends.

Pros:
- powerful method to review literature
- allows researcher flexibility
- data collection is easier bc you dont have to deal with people

cons:
- time consuming
- complex method
- box-score method is not as useful in todays society

Question 53

box score method and its cons

meta-analysis

Answer 53

yes or no questionnaire type thing
- a way of summarizing the positive responses from a Likert scale survey question. It combines the highest 2 responses of the scale to create a single number

cons:wider margins of error
need a larger sample size to detect differences

Question 54

explain systematic reviewing

meta’s close cousin

Answer 54

reviews literature
- focuses on checklist for quality to research which is used to inform conclusions

looks at studies as a whole

Question 55

longitudinal design

give pros and cons

Answer 55

individuals are followed over time (observational)
- multiple time points are taken
- allows identification of trends and causation ( if the cofounds are well controlled)

pros:
- cause and effect conclusions
- high comparability across time
- high detail in study design/findings

cons:
- time to execute is very long
- expensive
- high drop out rates

Question 56

cross-sectional designs

give pros and cons

Answer 56

• snapshot in time of a phenomena (looking at the present moment)
  looking at individuals of difference ages at one point ( not following them over time)
  (example: comparing individuals ages 25, 30, 35, and 40 at one time)
• does not lead to cause and effect conclusions because of inherent variability and preassigned groups

pros:
- inexpensive
- quick
- low drop out rates

cons:
- limits comparison between groups
- no information about participant development
- same age does not equal same development level
- cross generational conclusions can be problematic (cohort effects)

living in different worlds (cohorts)

Question 57

sequential designs

Answer 57

combines both longitudinal and cross sectional into one study
- assesses individuals ages 25,30 & 35 over time

cons: still going to have cohort effects
pro: will tell you more info than just doing a cross-sectional or longitudinal

Question 58

retrospective design and what types of questions you might see in this type of interview

quasi design

Answer 58

groups are pre-selected
looks at lifestyle/past events of people
can also focus on cross sections of people
does not allow for cause and effect conclusions

flexibility to assess both qualitative and quanititative:

questions:
qualitative: why did you play that sport at age 10-20
quantitative (categorical): highest education level
quantitative (continuous): how many hours a week did you play sport at ages 10-15