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BLOCK A - Molecules to Global Health > Basic Science > Flashcards

Basic Science Flashcards

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Organic Chemistry 101 flashcards
1
Q

The cell is the basic ____ building block of life

A

metabolic

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2
Q

Most mammalian cells are ___um in size vs bacterial cells that are ___um

A

10-100um; 1um

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3
Q

T/F: larger organisms contain larger cells

A

FALSE: they contain more cells

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4
Q

how many modes of specialization do vertebrate cells have?

A

400

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5
Q

What is a cell?

A

complex membrane-bounded aqueous gel

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6
Q

How are eukaryotic cells distinguished?

A

well-developed membrane system that envelopes the nucleus and partitions many cellular compartments

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7
Q

What else does the body contain in substantial amount other than cells? (2)

A
  1. intercellular material (insoluble, fibrous)
  2. intercellular fluid
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8
Q

T/F: tissues are made up of only one type of cell

A

FALSE: most contain mixture

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9
Q

what are the 4 primary tissues?

A
  1. epithelium
  2. connective tissue
  3. muscle tissue
  4. nervous tissue
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10
Q

T/F: all 4 types of tissue are present in a single organ

A

yes (often)

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11
Q

What are organ systems?

A

multiple organs that collectively perform an associated function

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12
Q

the organized patterns of cells to form tissues relies on cell ____ and _____

A

adhesion; cohesion

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13
Q

what are the smaller subunits found in cells called?

A

organelles

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14
Q
  1. T/F: organelles are in the sub-micrometer range
  2. T/F: organelles can be visualize with light microscopes
A
  1. TRUE
  2. FALSE: only seen by electron microscope
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15
Q

Organelles are found within what part of the cell? What does it look like?

A

protoplasm; gel-like substance

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16
Q

what can the protoplasm be subdivided into?

A

karyoplasm and cytoplasm

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17
Q

place the term with the correct definition: (cytoplasm/karyoplasm)

  1. found between the cell membrane (plasma membrane) and nucleus
  2. nucleus that surrounds the DNA
A
  1. cytoplasm
  2. karyoplasm
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18
Q

what’s the difference between cytosol and organelles?

A

cytosol = fluid component of the cytoplasm
organelles = insoluble, structural and functional components found in it

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19
Q

phospholipid bilayer membranes contain the ____

A

protoplasm

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20
Q

T/F: all organelles are membrane-bound

A

FALSE

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21
Q

which organelles are membrane-bound? (9)

A
  1. cell/plasma membrane
  2. cell membrane lipids
  3. cell membrane proteins
  4. endoplasmic reticulum
  5. Golgi apparatus
  6. secretory granules
  7. lysosomes
  8. endosomes
  9. peroxisomes
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22
Q

Phospholipid bilayers are __ based on the amount of ___ they contain. More cholesterol makes them ___ fluid

A

fluid; cholesterol; less

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23
Q

Cell membranes are visible in the (light/electron) microscope

A

electron

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24
Q

how do leaflets and polarity relate to cell membranes?

A

lipid bilayers contain inner and outer leaflets and each have hydrophilic heads with hydrophobic tails

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25
Q

what is the most common molecule in membranes? what does it contain?

A

phospholipids
1. polar head group of glycerol
2. 2 hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails (FATTY ACIDS)

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26
Q

membrane proteins extend from the (inner/outer) leaflet into the ____ space

A

outer; extracellular

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27
Q

the abundance of cell membrane proteins is known as?

A

glycocalyx (cell coat)

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28
Q

What’s the difference between transmembrane (integral) proteins and peripheral membrane proteins?

A

transmembrane proteins span the entirety of the lipid bilayer

peripheral membrane proteins are only at the inner or outer leaflets

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29
Q

what are the characteristics of the rough ER?

A
  1. ribosomes (seen in electron microscope)
  2. flattened saccules (rER cisternae)
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30
Q

where are cell membrane proteins and proteins destined for secretion assembled initially?

A

rER

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31
Q

the sER is (more/less) abundant than the rER in cells

A

less

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32
Q

what are the characteristics of the sER and what is its function?

A

devoid of ribosomes and continuous with the rER

function in detoxification of toxic materials, lipid metabolism and synthesis of steroids, cholesterol, triglycerides (in muscle cells –> stores Ca ions)

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33
Q

what is the Golgi apparatus made of?

A

Golgi cisternae (saccules)

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34
Q

what are the functions of the Golgi apparatus? (2)

A
  1. receives lipids and proteins from ER and dispatches them
  2. synthesizes carbohydrates
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35
Q

what do the saccules of the Golgi look like? what are the different faces of the saccules?

A

stacked and slightly curved with (like kitchen bowls), with the bowls facing outwards

convex bottom = cis/proximal face
concave open = trans/distal

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36
Q

how can sacculues change?

A

perforated (fenestrated) to form net-like structure

at periphery gives rise to secretory granules

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37
Q

what do the cis/trans Golgi networks do?

A

secretory granules are released from the trans Golgi face, passing through the trans Golgi network

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38
Q

what are lysosomes and what do they do?

A

membranous vesicles of hydrolytic enzymes (ACID HYDROLASES)

degradation of macromolecules

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39
Q

how do lysosomes and endosomes work together?

A

lysosomes receive material by the endosomes via the endocytic pathway

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40
Q

what are peroxisomes and what do they contain?

A

rich in oxidative enzymes, notable CATALASE and URATE OXIDASE

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41
Q

what is the function of peroxisomes?

A

produce hydrogen peroxide and use it to oxidize toxic molecules from the bloodstream (i.e., alcohol)

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42
Q

what happens when the oxidative enzymes in peroxisomes have very high concentrations?

A

they form a protein crystal (crystalloid core)

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43
Q

the nucleus is separated from the ___ by the ___

A

cytosol; nuclear envelope

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44
Q

what structure is the nuclear envelope similar to and how is it different?

A

endoplasmic reticulum; only posses ribosomes on outer surface

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45
Q

why is the nuclear envelope perforated by nuclear pores?

A

selective exchange of material btw the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm

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46
Q

what 3 structures are found in the nucleus?

A

chromatin, nucleolus and nucleoplasm

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47
Q

how do heterochromatin and euchromatin differ?

A

heterochromatin is condensed chromatin

euchromatin is dispersed chromatin

48
Q

what is the nucleolus?

A

transient structure that only appears during interphase state of cell division

49
Q

describe the structure of the mitochondria (3)

A
  1. large amounts of unfolded membrane, providing large surface area for electron-transport processes
  2. outer and inner mitochondrial membranes (phospholipid bilayer)
  3. matrix space and inner-membrane space
50
Q

the enzymes of respiratory chain are embedded in the ___ of the mitochondria which are essential to the process of ____, generating ___ molecules of ATP

A

inner membrane; oxidative phosphorylation; 30

51
Q

what is the major working part of the mitochondrion?

A

inner membrane and mitochondrial matrix

52
Q

what happens to the highly unfolded inner membrane of the mitochondria?

A

form cristae (transport proteins)

53
Q

compare large lipid droplets vs smaller lipid fat droplets

A

large droplet:
- called adipocytes
- fat/triglyceride (3 molecules of fatty acid + glycerol)

small droplet:
- adjacent to mitochondria

54
Q

describe glycogen (3)

A
  • found in the cytoplasm
  • large, branched polymer of glucose
  • forms granules and clusters called rossettes
55
Q

what is the purpose of the cytoskeleton and what are its 3 types?

A

gives cell its shape, capacity to move, ability to arrange its organelles, transport

microtubules, intermediate filaments, microfilaments (actin)

56
Q

T/F: most organelles are attached to the cytoskeleton and can be moved by cytoskeletal rearrangements

A

TRUE

57
Q

match the term with its correct definition (microtubule, intermediate filament, microfilaments):

  1. primary organization of cytoskeleton
  2. movement
  3. mechanical strength
A
  1. microtubules
  2. microfilaments
  3. intermediate filament
58
Q

what do the 3 types of cytoskeleton have in common?

A

exert their function by polymerization reactions (rapidly elongate)

59
Q

describe microtubules (3)

A
  • emanate from the centrosome which contains pair of complex micro tubular structures (CENTRIOLES)
  • low hollow cylinders
  • made of tubulin
60
Q

describe intermediate filaments (3)

A
  • ropelike fibers
  • structural support
  • transmit mechanical stresses across cells
61
Q

describe microfilaments (2)

A
  • double stranded, helical polymers of ACTIN
  • flexible and dispersed throughout
62
Q

what is the most abundant protein in many eukaryotic cells?

A

actin

63
Q

T/F: all actin is in a polymerized, filamentous state

A

FALSE

64
Q

what are the two forms of epithelial tissue?

A

sheet of cells and glands

65
Q

what are the 3 derivation of epithelia?

A
  1. ectoderm
  2. endoderm
  3. mesoderm
66
Q

what are the functions of epithelia? (6)

A
  1. protection
  2. thermoregulation
  3. transport
  4. secretion
  5. absorption
  6. sensation
67
Q

T/F: the epithelia’s nucleus is stained pink and its cytoplasm is stained blue

A

FALSE: nucleus is stained blue and cytoplasm stained pink

68
Q

what is the epithelia?

A

epithelium is a sheet of cells, making up a tissue that covers a surface

69
Q

what two things do epithelium cover?

A
  1. borders surface or space
  2. borders basement membrane/basal lamina
70
Q

what’s the difference between basement membrane and basal lamina?

A

basement membrane is the light microscopic term

basal lamina is the electron microscopic term

71
Q

what does the basement membrane separate?

A

the epithelium from the connective tissue

72
Q

what is the difference between simple epithelia and stratified epithelia?

A

simple: one cell thick
stratified: multiple layers thick

73
Q

where do the epithelial names derive from?

A

shape of the surface cells (i.e., squamous, cuboidal or columnar)

74
Q

what is connective tissue?

A

space between two epithelial linings made up of cells and extracellular material

75
Q

give an example of:
1. cellular connective tissue
2. acellular connective tissue

A
  1. blood and marrow
  2. bone
76
Q

why is connective tissue space important?

A

physiological background for diffusion of nutrients to the tissues and of waste products from tissues to blood

77
Q

what are the functions of binding and connecting connective tissues? explain (3)

A
  1. connects tissues together and provides flexible support
  2. nutritive and excretory role: carries capillaries that supply nutrients to cells and remove metabolic products
  3. defence: swelling/edema and there is steady state btw plasma lost from blood and lymph collected by lymphatic vessels
78
Q

what cells are found in the connective tissue? (6)

A
  1. mesenchyme
  2. fibroblast
  3. fibrocyte
  4. macrophage
  5. mast cell
  6. plasma cell
79
Q

what do inter or extracellular substance consist of? (3)

A

secretion products of:
1. fibrous elements
2. amorphous ground substance
3. minerals of calcium phosphate

80
Q

what are the fibrous elements of connective tissue?

A
  1. collagen
  2. elastic fibres/laminae (from elastin)
  3. reticular fibres (type 3 collagen with small fibril size)
81
Q

T/F: elastin is selectively stained with Verhoff’s hematoxylin, giving a black color

A

TRUE

82
Q

what are collagen and elastin synthesized and secreted by? (6)

A
  1. fibroblasts
  2. fibrocytes
  3. osteoblasts
  4. osteocytes
  5. odontoblasts
  6. cementoblasts
83
Q

elastin is synthesized by two additional structures. which ones?

A
  1. chondrocytes (elastic cartilage)
  2. smooth muscle fibers
84
Q

describe mesenchymal stem cells (3)

A
  • embryonic cell of mesodermal origin (between outer/inner ectoderm)
  • gives rise to endothelial cells of blood vessels, blood cells and fibroblasts
  • abundant at early age and decreases throughout life
85
Q

describe fibroblasts/fibrocytes (3)

A
  • abundant in young forming tissue, decreases as connective tissues form
  • participate in turning over the EM
    produce collagen, elastin, noncallegnous proteins and proteoglycans
  • has rER, Golgi and secretory granules
86
Q

describe macrophages (3)

A
  • “large-eater” (large nucleus and cytoplasm)
  • cytoplasm has inclusions that are phagocytosed particles
  • functions in defence
87
Q

the process of particle internalization, through extended pseudopods from the cell membrane to then form a ____ with the cell which then fuses with enzyme-loaded, low-pH ____ for degradation to form a ____. this process is called ____

A

phagosome; lysosomes; phagolysosome; phagocytosis

88
Q

what are phagolysosomes that cannot complete degradation called? what is an example?

A

residual bodies; tattoo ink

89
Q

what are histiocytes and how do they compare to macrophages? (2)

A
  • less migratory and local macrophages
  • active in phagocytosis
90
Q

what do macrophages secrete?

A
  • immune, anaphylaxis and inflammation substances
  • chemokines
91
Q

what are foreign body giant cells?

A

fused macrophages that surround very large particles that have entered the connective tissue

92
Q

describe mast cells (3)

A
  • cell of lymphatic system
  • secrete heparin and histamine (glycosaminoglycans), slow-reacting substances of anaphylaxis, eosinophil chemotactic factor of anaphylaxis
  • secretion by simultaneous fusion of membranes in all granules allows entire cell to degranulate for massive simultaneous release
93
Q

T/F: mast cells are specialized in synthesis of proteins as antibodies (immunoglobulins)

A

TRUE

94
Q

describe multiocular adipocytes (4)

A
  • liberated as heat (hibernating gland)
  • form brown fat (color due to blood supply/mitochondria)
  • smaller
  • larger number of small individual lipid droplets
95
Q

describe the extracellular matrix and its functions

A
  • secretion product of the connective tissue cells

functions:
1. signals
2. communication
3. protection
4. compartment
5. transport
6. controls diffusion

96
Q

what three component fibres are recognized in the elastic network (what are they)?

A
  1. oxytalan fibres (bundles of microfibrils)
  2. elaunin fibres (microfibrils embedded in amorphous elastin)
  3. elastic fibres (contains amorphous elastin surrounded by microfibrils)
97
Q

T/F: elastic components can only exist as fibres

A

FALSE: fibres OR LAMINAE

98
Q

what are the 4 types of collagen fibres?

A

type 1. ordinary connective tissue and bone
type 2. cartilage
type 3. reticular
type 4. basal lamina

99
Q

describe type 1 collagen fibres (3)

A
  • macromolecule
  • 3 helically wounded molecules called alpha chains
  • collagen secreted from the Golgi apparatus
100
Q

describe the reticular fibers (2)

A
  • small
  • located beneath basal laminae of epithelia and smooth muscle fibres
101
Q

how can adipocytes be found (2)?

A
  1. dispersed in connective tissue
  2. connective tissue space as adipose tissue
102
Q

describe mature adipocytes

A
  • large central lipid droplet
  • thin rim of cytoplasm
  • associated organelles relegated to perimeter of cell
103
Q

explain the link between lipids, fatty acids, VLDL

A
  • lipids stored as triglycerides (esters of fatty acids and glycerol)
  • fatty acids come from diet and brought to adipocytes by CHYLOMICRON TRIGLYCERIDES in the form of very low density lipoproteins
104
Q

chylomicra and VLDLs are hydrolyzed at the ____ of blood capillaries by ____

A

luminal surface; lipoprotein lipase

105
Q

in the adipocyte, the resultant fatty acids combine with ___ to form ____ which deposits in the ____

A

glycerol phosphate; triglycerides; triglyceride lipid droplet

106
Q

what does insulin do in adipocytes?

A

accelerates fatty acid synthesis

107
Q

Describe Alzheimer’s disease (3)

A
  • Neurodegeneration in regions including the hippocampus
  • Neuropathology includes beta-amyloid plaques (molecular marker)
  • ApoE4 allele is a risk factor
108
Q

what are the beta-amyloid plaques made of? how do they arise?

A
  • Plaques made of a degradation product of the amyloid precursor protein
  • Mutations in the APP or enzymes that degrade it (PS1/PS2) –> early-onset AD
109
Q

T/F: a healthy brain has no beta amyloid in it

A

FALSE: Healthy person has some beta amyloid but it’s everywhere in AD brain

110
Q

what is dilantin? how does it work?

A
  • used for epilepsy
  • suppresses seizures without sedation by blocking vgated Na+ channels
111
Q

describe inherited erythromyelalgia

A
  • rare/monogenic inherited disorder
  • episodes of redness/pain in feet/hands
  • caused by mutations in the Nav1.7 Na+ channel (makes channels more likely to open)
112
Q

describe the outcome of a mutation in Nav1.7 that causes NON-FUNCTIONAL changes

A

congenital insensitivity to pain

113
Q

how do we understand complex disorders?

A

by studying rare disorders that are rue to a single gene mutation

114
Q

what did we learn from studying IE?

A

neuropathic pain involves abnormal function of Nav1.7

115
Q

T/F: sporadic diseases are due to mutations of multiple genes

A

TRUE

116
Q

what two ways have looked at restoring function in patients with spinal cord damage?

A
  1. use brain activity recorded from motor cortex to guide a robotic limb
  2. transmit activity recorded in motor cortex to neurone in the spinal cord

BLOCK A - Molecules to Global Health (5 decks)

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