Basic Concepts in Anatomy Flashcards
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Gross anatomy
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macroscopic - the study of structures of the body visible with the unaided eye
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Microscopic anatomy
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Histology - the study of tissues aided by magnification
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Systemic anatomy
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the isolated study of one system (muscular, skeletal, or vascular) throughout the entire body
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Regional anatomy
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the study of the interplay of all systems found within a single region of the body.
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Primary approach in anatomy course
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regional anatomy
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Anatomical position
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the same standardized position in which the body is visualized in order to consistently and accurately describe the relative location of anatomical structures. This position has the bipedal human standing erect with face toes and palms facing forward (anterior) the upper limbs near the side of the body and the feet narrowly positioned. .
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Coronal (frontal) plane
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vertical plan that divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions
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Sagittal plane
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vertical plan that divides into right and left portions
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Median (mid sagittal or median sagittal) plane
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the sagittal plan that divides the body into equal right and left halves at the precise midline
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Transverse (horizontal) plane
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horizontal plan that divides into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions
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Longitudinal sections
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cut lengthwise, parallel to the long axis of the body part, can be in the frontal (coronal) or sagittal planes
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Transverse sections (cross sections
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cut perpendicular to the long axis of the body part
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Oblique sections
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cut along a plane which is not longitudinal or transverse
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anatomical sections
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longitudinal, transverse, oblique
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anatomical planes
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coronal, sagittal, median, transverse
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Anterior
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ventral - front
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posterior
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dorsal - back
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superior
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cranial - top
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inferior
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caudal - bottom
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medial
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toward the median plane
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lateral
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away from the median plane
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proximal
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toward the origin (used for limbs, neural, vascular)
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Distal
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away from the origin (used for limbs, neural, vascular)
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Superficial
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closer to the body surface, internally
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Deep
away from the body surface, internally
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Bilateral
present on both sides of the body
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unilateral
present on 1 side of the body only
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ipsilateral
on the same side as another structure, relational
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contralateral
on the opposite side from another structure
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abduction
moving away from the median plane, along the frontal plane
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adduction
moving toward the median plan, along the frontal plane
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lateral (external) rotation
revolving around the longitudinal axis causing the anterior surface to move away from the median plane
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medial (internal) rotation
revolving around the longitudinal axis causing the anterior surface to move toward the median plane
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protraction
moving a part anteriorly, considered transverse or sagittal
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retraction
moving a part posteriorly, considered transverse or sagittal
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axial skeletal system
cranium, hyoid, vertebrae, ribs, and sternum
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appendicular skeletal system
forms the limbs with their girdles
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long bones
longer than wide (femur, ulna)
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short bones
roughly cube shaped (ones at base of hand)
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flat bones
thin and flat (or slightly curved) like scapular, or cranial bones
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irregular bones
various shapes (vertebrae, facial bones)
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sesamoid
seed shaped, develop in tendons (patella)
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Parts of long bones
1. Diaphysis
2. Epiphyses
3. Metaphysis
4. Medullary cavity
5. Periosteum
6. Endosteum
7. Nutrient Foramen
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diaphysis
shaft or body of bone
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epiphyses
proximal and distal ends of the bone
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metaphysis
junction between diaphysis and epiphysis, location of the epiphyseal line (adult) or epiphyseal plate (growth plate) in the growing bone
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medullary cavity
interior of diaphysis containing bone marrow
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Periosteum
connective tissue covering of the external bone surface, tendons of muscles intermingle with this tissue to unite muscles to the bones
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endosteum
connective tissue lining the medullary cavity
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Nutrient foramen
opening in the diaphysis allowing the main artery and vein to pass to the medullary cavity
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Blood supply to the bone
the nutrient artery is the largest and passes through the nutrient foramen. Smaller epiphysis and metaphyseal arteries arise from joint supplying arteries. Periosteum blood supply is crucial for bone survival.
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Veins follow
arteries
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Innervation of the bone
Primary innervation is same as those innervating blood vessels (vasomotor). Bone is relatively insensitive to pain. Periosteum is supplied by sensory fibers which convey pain from damaged structures.
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Cartilage of the bone
1. avascular connective tissue located at sites of increased flexibility
2. 3 types based on composition of extracellular matrices
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3 types of cartilage
Hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage
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hyaline catilage
most common and is found coating the articular (joint) surface of most bones (articular cartilage) and also forms costal cartilage and tracheal rings
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elastic cartilage
forms the external ear and epiglottis
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fibrocartilage
forms articular discs at various joints, intervertebral discs, and the pubic symphysis
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Joints
articulations - where 2 bones come together
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Fibrous joints
bone surfaces joined by dense connective tissue, no cavity present (has sutures, syndesmosis, and gomphosis)
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sutures
between bones of skull, minimal amount of fibrous tissue
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Syndesmosis
bones connected by a sheet of dense connective tissue (interosseous membrane between radius and ulna)
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Gomphosis
tooth root joined to bony socket by peridontal ligament
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Cartilaginous joints
joined by cartilage, no cavity present (synchondrosis and symphysis)
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synchondrosis
joined by hyaline cartilage (epiphyseal (growth) plates, costochondral junction between ribs and costal cartilages)
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Symphysis
joined by fibrocartilage (intervertebral discs and pubic symphysis
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Synovial joints
a fluid filled joint cavity, results in increased flexibility between hyaline covered articular surfaces. All synovial joints are diarthroses
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Synovial joint components
articular cartilage, joint (synovial) cavity, articular capsule, synovial membrane, synovial fluid, ligaments, articular discs
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articular cartilage
mostly hyaline cartilage
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joint (synovial) cavity
fluid filled space between articular surfaces
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articular capsule
an outer layer of fibrous tissue that is continuous with the periosteum of the related bones and inner synovial membrane s
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synovial membrane
covers all except the articular cartilage
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synovial fluid
very viscous fluid, produced by synovial membrane and fills the cavity
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Ligaments can be found in joints to be
supporting the capsule, extracapsular, or inside as the intracapsular (like crucial ligaments of the knee)
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Fibrocartilaginous articular discs
can be found within the cavity or between 2 cavities to improve the surface interactions or absorb forces (temporomandibular joint and sternoclavicular joint)
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Mechanical classifications of synovial joints
Uniaxial, Biaxial, multiaxial
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Biaxial
moves in 2 planes (knuckles)
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Multiaxial
moves in 3 or more planes (glenohumeral joint)
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uniaxial
moves in only one plane (elbow)
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Shape classifications of synovial joints
1. plane
2. hinge
3. pivot
4. condyloid
5. saddle
6. ball and socket
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plane joint
2 flat surfaces, allowing gliding/sliding movements
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hinge joint
cylindrical end fits into a trough end, allowing uniaxial movements (elbow)
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pivot joint
cylinder end fits into a ring of bone with fibrous support tissue, allowing rotation (shaking head side to side)
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condyloid (ellipsoid) joint
egg shaped surface with a concave surface, allowing biaxial movements of flexion/extension and adduction/abduction
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saddle joints
saddle shaped convex and concave surfaces yielding biaxial movements as in condyloid joints
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ball and socket joint
a sphere in a concave socket yielding multiaxial movements
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blood supply to joints
most large synovial joints are supplied via an extensive arterial anastomosis, which is a matrix of interconnected arteries. The anastomosis allows continual blood flow when the joint is in extreme positions
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Hiltons Law
states that a joint is innervated by branches of the nerves that innervate the muscles which move the joint. These articular nerves are used in transmitting pain, proprioceptive (joint position) information, and for innervating adjacent vasculature (vasomotor function).
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Skin
the largest organ of the body, which functions to protect, regulate heat, provide sensation, and synthesis of vitamin D. Skin varies in thickness and sensitivity. It is thickest on the soles of the feet and thinnest on the eyelids.
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epidermis
the outer avascular layer of skin formed by keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium
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dermis
the vascular, deeper layer of the skin formed by dense connective tissue
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Various specialized structures in skin
they are variably present - skin, hair follicles, arrector pili muscles, sebaceous glands, sweat glands, and receptor organs
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how is the dermis attached to the underlying deep fascia
via skin ligaments (retinaculum cutis) bands of fibrous tissue. A high density of skin ligaments are found in the palms of the hands and soles of the feet, reducing movement of the skin, as opposed to the dorsum of the hands which have minimal ligaments.
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Fascia
a layer of connective tissue that contains varying amounts of fat and helps to surround, separate, and or connect structures.
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Superficial fascia
lies deep to the dermis, containing varying amounts of fat and neurovasculature. This later allows freer movement of the skin over deeper structures
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deep fascia
dense, connective tissue found deep to the superficial fascia. Deep fascia has inward projections (intermuscular septa) which compartmentalize similarly functioning and similarly innervated muscle groups. Deep fascia also has extensions which invest neurovascular, forming a bundle. Deep fascia has thickening near joints (wrist, ankle) called retinacula, which act as pulleys for tendons running deeply
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3 general muscle ttpes
skeletal smooth and cardiac
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skeletal muscle
voluntarily controlled and striated. Produces force to move or stabilize the skeleton
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smooth muscle
involuntarily controlled and non striated. Found in viscera, vessels, skin, and eyeball
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cardiac muscle
involuntarily controlled and striated. understandably found in the heart.
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Tendons
strong dense connective tissue cords that attach muscle to bone. The tendon may be enclosed by a serous membrane (tendon sheath). Its cavity is filled with synovial fluid to reduce friction on the tendon as it passes under retinacula or through fibrous tunnels
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tendon sheath
serous membrane enclosing tendon.
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muscle origin
generally the more proximal tendon attachment that typically remains fixed (stationary) in position during a muscle contraction
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a muscle insertion
generally the more distal tendon attachment site that typically moves during a muscle contraction
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attachment site
will be used more often than origin and insertion.
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aponeurosis
a wide flattened tendinous sheet, which forms the attaching structure for various muscles
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naming of muscles can be based on
function, attachment site, number of muscle bellies, length or size, relative position
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shapes of muscle
flat, pennate (feather like), fusiform, convergent, geometric
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pennate muscles split into
unipennate (muscle fibers attach to the tendon on one side) or bipennate (muscle fibers attach to a central tendon on both sides) or multipennate (muscle fibers attach to several central tendons)
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fusiform means
spindle shaped
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convergent muscles
wide, fan shaped tendon which converges into a single tendon
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geometric muscles
circular, quadrangular, trapezoid, rhomboid
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how is force produced in teh muscles
contractile units of the muscles shorten
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muscles pull or push
they only pull never push.
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isometric contractions
muscle tension increases but overall muscle length does not change (no skeletal movement)
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concentric contractions
exist when the muscle tension is greater than the opposing forces, resulting in overall muscle shortening and subsequent skeletal movement
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eccentric contractions
exist when the muscle tension is less than the opposing forces resulting in overall muscle lengthening and subsequent skeletal movement
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agonist
the main muscle producing the movement, concentrically is the primary mover
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antagonist
the muscle the opposes the prime mover, eccentrically, is the antagonist. The optimal balance between agonist and antagonist activities results in efficient, smooth, movement.
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fixator
a muscle which isometrically contracts to stabilize the origin of the prime mover
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Synergists
muscles that assist prime movers either by providing similar forces or by adjusting the system to modify the action, as desired.
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Cardiovascular system consists of
the heart and blood vessels
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pulmonary circulation
contains low oxygenated blood pumped from the right ventricle through pulmonary arties to the lungs to be oxygenated and then delivered to the left atrium via the pulmonary veins.
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systemic criculation
contains oxygen rich blood pumped from the L ventricle to arties to the entire body where oxygen is used and the blood is returned to the right atrium of the heart via veins
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heart
4 chambered organ pumps blood through 2 different circulations
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arteries
carry blood away from the heart. As the systemic arterial system works under high pressure, these vessels have thicker walls than veins. As arteries branch they get smaller and become arterioles.
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capillaries
small thin walled vessels found in the destination tissues where O2 exchange occurs, interposed between arterioles and venules
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Veins
carry blood toward the heart. As the systemic venous works under low pressure, these vessels are thin walled and have a valve system to reduce regurgitation of blood.
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what happens as veins gain what
as veins gain tributaries, they become larger as they approach the heart.
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Lymphatic system is made up of
lymph, lymph vessels, lymph nodes
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lymphs
formed by transparent interstitial fluid, cellular debris, pathogens and lymphocytes
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lymph vessels
similar to veins, in that they start as capillaries that merge to form larger vessels and contain valves to facilitate one way flow These lymph vessels eventually merge with the systemic venous system
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lymph nodes
are encapsulated masses of lymphoid tissue found along the lymph vessels. they function to remove particulates and to react to antigens. Lymph nodes are consistent in position and drain specific regions/structures. w
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what can changes in lymph node size be used for
to diagnose infections or cancer in the area drained by the node
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division of nervous system
CNS and PND
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somatic
divided from embryonic somites (skin, skeleton, and skeletal muscles)
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visceral
involved with visceral organs
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afferent/sensory
components bringing info into the CNS
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efferent/motor
components transmitting info away from the CNS
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functional division of the nervous system
somatic, visceral, afferent/sensory, efferent/motor
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functional cell of nervous system
neuron
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component of a neuron
cell body (soma), dendrites (receive info), and axon (deliver info)
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shapes of neurons
multipolar and pseudounipolar neurons
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multipolar neurons
have numerous process on the cell body; many dendrites and one axon
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pseudounipolar neuron
have a single appendage attached to the cell body (sensory neurons). This single piece has a peripheral process with a dendritic end bringing info from the peripheral body ( like a skin receptor) and a central process transmitting towards the CNS.
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neuroglia
glial cells - the support cells of the nervous system. These cells have numerous functions and actually outnumber the neurons
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ganglion
a collection of neuron cell bodies located outside the CNS
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nucleus
collection of neuron cell bodies located inside the CNS
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nerve fiber
a neurons axon and its coverings
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a nerve
a bundle of nerve fibers outside the CNS. A nerve is covered by connective tissue and bv (vaso nervosum)
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synapse
site of communication, info transfer between neurons
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a motor unit is defined as
a single motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates. This is the functional unit of muscle contraction/relaxation control
