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A&P II Lab > Background info > Flashcards

Background info Flashcards

1
Q

Are neurons somewhat synchronized in regular firing rhythms, known as “brain waves”?

A

yes

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2
Q

Where are electrodes placed?

A

On the scalp and in pairs

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3
Q

What are EEG signals affected by?

A

cerebral cortex’s state of arousal

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4
Q

Do EEGs show slow or fast changes in membrane potentials?

A

Slow

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5
Q

Where do EEG waves arise

A

thalamus

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6
Q

Name a location of an input that affects this location

A

the brainstem reticular
formation

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7
Q

Alpha

A
  • (8-13 Hz; 30-50 uV avg. amplitudes)
  • relaxed state and eyes are closed
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8
Q

How are alpha waves decreased?

A

eye opening + mental effort

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9
Q

Alpha waves: Cortical activatiion relationship

A

greater activation = lower alpha activity

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10
Q

Strong areas of alpha waves

A

occipital and frontal cortex

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11
Q

Beta

A
  • (13-30 Hz; < 20 uV)
  • Awake, alert, eyes open
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12
Q

How are beta waves decreased?

A

absent or reduced in areas with cortical damage + sedative-
hypnotic drugs

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13
Q

Theta

A
  • (4-8 Hz; < 30 uV)
  • awake children up to adolescence; can’t been seen in adults; seen in sleep at all ages
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14
Q

Low theta

A
  • (4-5.45 Hz)
  • Activities with decreased arousal & increased drowsiness
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15
Q

High theta

A
  • (6-7.45 Hz)
  • tasks involving working memory
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16
Q

Delta

A
  • (0.5-4 Hz; up to 100-200 uV)
  • sleep stages 3 and 4 (not seen in conscious adult)
  • Highest amplitude out of all EEG waves
  • Jaw/neck muscles movement make these waves as well
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17
Q

Gamma

A
  • (30-50 Hz)
  • Higher mental activity association, disappears under general anesthesia
  • Enhanced in monks because of meditation, absent in schizophrenics
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18
Q

The more active the brain, the ____ the frequency and the _____ the amplitude of the EEG

A
  • higher, lower
  • The inverse holds true
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19
Q

What are the two states of sleep?

A

REM and non-REM

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20
Q

How many phrases does non-REM sleep have? Is it progressive?

A

Yes, it is progressive, N1-N3

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21
Q

How long does the REM cycle last?

A

about 90 minutes

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22
Q

About how many times does the REM cycle repeat in a span of 8 hours?

A

4-6 times

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23
Q

What happens during the latter REM cycle?

A

REM component gets longer while N3 gets shorter/not
occurring

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24
Q

N1

A
  • Decreased beta activity
  • Alpha activity less obvious
  • Theta activity emerges
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25
Q

N2

A
  • Irregular theta activity
  • Sleep spindles (12-14 Hz) in short bursts
  • Wave amplitude (K-complexes) suddenly increase
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26
Q

N1 and N2 are the?

A

“light” stages

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27
Q

N3 is known as the?

A

“deep sleep” stage

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28
Q

Non-REM

A
  • Increased serotonin
  • Secretion of norepinephrine, corticosteroids and testosterone (males)
  • Blood pressure decrease
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29
Q

What are the five main regions of the brain?

A

Cerebral Hemispheres
Cerebellum
Diencephalon
Brainstem
Spinal Cord

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30
Q

Cerebral Hemispheres

A
  • Makes outer surface
  • Has numerous grooves
  • Superficially divided into lobes
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31
Q

Functions of the cerebral hemispheres

A
  • Reasoning
  • Abstract thought
  • Audio/visual processing
  • Memory
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32
Q

Cerebellum

A
  • Location: base of brain
  • More specific: below cerebral cortex & behind brainstem
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33
Q

Functions of cerebellum

A
  • Planning/timing of movement
  • Motor memory
  • Posture
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34
Q

Functions of Diencephalon

A
  • Sensory input receiver
  • Distributes info to where it needs to go
  • Regulates autonomic & endocrine systems
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35
Q

Brainstem

A
  • Location: Base of skull, continues with spinal cord
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36
Q

Parts of the brainstem

A

i. Midbrain
ii. Pons
iii. Medulla oblongata

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37
Q

Functions of the brainstem

A
  • Sensory-motor relay
  • Autonomic function regulation
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38
Q

Spinal Cord

A

Continuation of brainstem

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39
Q

Function of the brainstem

A

Sensory and motor info relay
1. Originates from:
a. Cerebral cortex
b. Cerebellum

  1. Brings to:
    a. Organs
    b. Limbs
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40
Q

How many divisions are there in the cerebrum?

A

2 (left and right hemisphere)

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41
Q

What connects the hemispheres of the cerebrum?

A

white matter tract called the corpus callosum (the biggest
white matter structure in the brain)

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42
Q

What is Agenesis?

A

a disorder in the corpus callosum where a baby is born with part or
all of their corpus callosum missing.

Symptoms?
 Holding head up
 Sitting, standing, walking
 Poor hand-eye coordination
 Seizures
 Feeding problems
 Impaired mental/physical development
 Poor visual & auditory memory

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43
Q

Cerebral Cortex

A

Comprises the (outer/inner) layer (gray matter) of the brain.

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44
Q

Higher brain functions of the cerebral cortex include:

A
  • Reasoning
  • Abstract thought
  • Language
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45
Q

What are the four lobe subdivisions of each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex?

A

o Frontal
o Parietal
o Occipital
o Temporal

46
Q

Where is the primary motor cortex?

A

at the posterior border of the frontal lobes

47
Q

What nerve impulse initiation occurs? (frontal lobe)

A

movements

48
Q

Areas of “Executive functioning” for the frontal lobe

A

o Abstract thought
o Planning
o Consequences of actions
o Learned social behaviors

49
Q

Prefrontal cortex plays what significant role?

A

working memory

50
Q

What is involved in language expression?

A

Broca’s area

51
Q

What symptoms would you see in a person if Broca’s area is damaged?

A

Expressive
aphasia: difficulty in speaking in complete sentences but not impaired in language
comprehension

52
Q

What is in the parietal lobe?

A

the somatosensory cortex

53
Q

What does the parietal lobe do?

A

integrates various sensory information such as
 Auditory
 Visual
 Somatosensory (sensations that can occur anywhere in the body (i.e. pressure,
heat, or pain)
 Proprioceptive (the sense of where the body is in relation to itself and its
surroundings)

54
Q

What is the sensory homunculus?

A

a representation of the location of the different regions of
the body

55
Q

What is in the occipital lobe?

A

the visual cortex

56
Q

What symptoms would you see in someone whose occipital lobe has been damaged?

A

varying degrees and types of visual impairment despite the eyes being undamaged. This includes:
o Unable to distinguish colors
o Visual hallucinations
o Blindness

57
Q

What is in the temporal lobe?

A

the auditory cortex

58
Q

What does the temporal lobe do?

A

receive and process auditory information

59
Q

What is involved in understanding language?

A

Wernicke’s area (Don’t confuse with Broca’s
area, which is involved in language expressions)

60
Q

What symptoms would you see in someone whose Wernicke’s area has been damaged?

A

Receptive aphasia: unable to understand language, both spoken and written;
however, patients can still speak with normal fluency but may be meaningless or
unintelligible

61
Q

Why is the cerebellum (“little brain”) important?

A

used for smooth, coordinated, and precise
movements

62
Q

Where is the cerebellum located?

A

behind the pons and midbrain (these two are part of the
brainstem)

63
Q

How many % of all neurons of the brain are here?

A

50%

64
Q

How is the cerebellum able to perform its functions?

A

processes information received from other areas of the brain such as:
 Vestibular
 Visual
 Somatosensory
 Motor

65
Q

What is the cerebellum involved in?

A

posture and balance

66
Q

Without using medical equipment, what is a simple way you can assess a person’s cerebellar
function?

A
  • examination of one’s gait
  • balance (eyes open and then shut)
  • “finger to nose” testing
  • Will have difficulty when asked to perform accurate rapid alternating movements (i.e. touching own nose and then the examiner’s finger or showing how to screw a lightbulb
    into a socket)
67
Q

What is a reflex?

A

an involuntary movement in response to a stimulus, occurring almost
immediately after the stimulus

68
Q

Myotatic

A
  • related to a muscle stretch reflex
  • A type of simple spinal reflex
69
Q

How are stretch reflexes produced?

A

single synapses between sensory axons and motor
neurons

70
Q

How many neurons are used for stretch reflexes? Provide an example

A

two; hitting the patellar
ligament below the patella will stretch the quadriceps muscle

71
Q

What does a stretch reflex trigger?

A

impulse in a sensory axon

72
Q

Where is the sensory axon cell body located?

A

the dorsal root ganglion in the lumbar region of
the spinal cord

73
Q

What is the sensory axon directly next to?

A

a motor neuron

74
Q

What does a sensory axon do?

A

triggers an action (i.e. after the patellar ligament is struck an impulse
sent from the sensory axon will go to the motor neuron and will trigger contraction)

75
Q

True or False: the brain is necessary and required for many simple reflex functions

A

FALSE

76
Q

How many synaptic links does the protective reflex require to function?

A

– Several
- Yet we are able to withdraw from painful stimuli at fast speeds!

77
Q

Map out the pathway of the protective reflex

A

stimulation of nociceptive (pain) sensory
neurons occurs -> flexor muscles stimulated -> withdrawal of stimulated limb

78
Q

What happens at the same time of the protective reflex?

A

extensor muscles in the opposite limb is inhibited

79
Q

crossed extension reflex

A

helps to enhance postural support during withdrawal

80
Q

Describe the phenomenon as said by Joseph Babinski

A

When the sole of the foot is stroked in
patient with an upper motor neuron lesion, the big toe dorsiflexes (extends upwards)

81
Q

What is the importance of the babinski phenomenon?

A

used to identify disease or damage to the spinal cord or brain

82
Q

Where is the babinski also seen in?

A

infants younger than 12-18 months

83
Q

Who and how is the Babinski Sign inhibited?

A

in healthy adults and children, the cerebral cortex
inhibits by the big toe flexes (curl downwards) and eversion of the foot (this is called plantar
reflex)

84
Q

If lesions in neurons are found, what are the ones that affect ability to contract muscles?

A

upper motor neuron lesions

85
Q

Findings on affected limbs:

A

 Spasticity
 “Clasp knife rigidity” (initial resistance to movements initiated by the observer,
followed by relaxation)
 Muscle weakness with moderate wasting
 Hyperreflexia (i.e. tendon jerk reflexes)
 Babinski sign

86
Q

What type of neuron lesion is present when cell bodies of the motor neurons in the anterior horn of spinal cord are damaged?

A

lower motor neuron lesions

87
Q

Findings on affected limbs:

A

 Paralysis or muscle paresis (partial loss of movement)
 Muscle weakness w/ significant wasting
 Spontaneous contractions of groups of muscle fibers (fasciculations), visible on
physical examination
 Spontaneous contractions of individual muscle fibers (fibrillations), not visible
on physical examination
 Hypotonia or atonia
 Areflexia or hyporeflexia
 No Babinski sign

88
Q

An abnormal reflex when detected in people over 2 years of age, but normal in children under
this age

A

Babinski sign

89
Q

Closing of the eye to protect it from foreign objects, bright light, or other perceived hazards.

A

corneal (blink) reflex

90
Q

Constriction of the pupils to view near objects

A

accommodation reflex

91
Q

Involves the removal of a limb from painful or threatening stimuli

A

flexion withdrawal reflex

92
Q

Modification of the pupil’s diameter in response to light

A

pupillary light reflex

93
Q

Occurs in conjunction with the flexion withdrawal reflex to provide postural support.

A

crossed extensor reflex

94
Q

What is the correct order for the pathway in a flexion withdrawal reflex arc?

A

Receptor -> sensory neuron -> interneuron -> motor neuron -> muscle

95
Q

In the pupillary reflex, which of the statements are true?

A

 The optic nerve is responsible for carrying light information to the midbrain.
 The oculomotor nerve carries the efferent response from the midbrain.
 The oculomotor nerve innervates the circular muscle of the iris.

96
Q

In the pupillary reflex, which of the statements are false

A

The reflex is monosynaptic

97
Q

In the pupillary reflex, what happens when a light is shined on the eye?

A

The circular muscle of the iris contracts in both eyes

98
Q

Upper motor neuron lesion signs

A
  • Increase in muscle tone (spasticity)
  • Brisk tendon jerk reflexes
  • The big toe extends upwards when the sole of the foot is stroked
  • There is muscle weakness with no wasting
99
Q

Lower motor neuron lesion

A
  • Hypotonia or atonia
  • No Babinski sign
  • Muscle tone is decreased
100
Q

How does a pulse transducer work?

A

The pulse transducer detects the pulse, a pressure wave created by each heartbeat following the expansion and recoil of arteries

101
Q

Why would there be a lag between the raw data signal and the channel calculation signal that you see on screen?

A

The channel calculation like other computer systems needs time to convert the raw data they’re receiving into data that is readable by the channel.

102
Q

A fluid membrane is composed of?

A

phospholipids, proteins, and other molecules surrounds all cells

103
Q

Function of a membrane

A
  • regulates what comes into and out of the cell.
  • The structure must facilitate communication with other cells, uptake of nutrients, and disposal of wastes.
104
Q

amphipathic molecules

A

they have a hydrophobic region and a hydrophilic region

105
Q

Phospholipid tail

A

orient themselves towards the inside of the sheet and each other; hydrophobic

106
Q

Phospholipid heads

A

form hydrogen bonds with the aqueous solution and point outwards into it; hydrophilic

107
Q

Transmembrane proteins are primarily composed of

A
  • non-polar amino-acids that span the bilayer
  • They have a diverse range of functions and are commonly involved in cellular signalling processes
108
Q

Cholesterol

A

act to strengthen and maintain fluidity of the bilayer and regulate activity of some membrane proteins.

109
Q

Unsaturated lipids

A

can cause a disruption in lipid packing, thus making a bilayer which is more permeable to small molecules and has greater flexibility

110
Q

Why is membrane strength important?

A

bilayer is held together solely by relatively weak non-covalent hydrophobic bonds and there is no formation of stronger chemical bonds

111
Q

The color of red beetroot is due to

A

a purple pigment, betacyanin, and a yellow pigment, betaxanthin.

112
Q

Beet pigment is contained in?

A

vacuoles

A&P II Lab (3 decks)

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